tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63227398277773119642024-03-16T02:10:45.146+01:00Drang naar SamenhangRolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.comBlogger104125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-15506916224177648772023-12-01T15:09:00.003+01:002023-12-08T15:32:53.320+01:00Winterfilms 1: Winter Sleep<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">De tijd is er rijp voor. Na zomerfilms hebben we nu ook winterfilms in Drang naar Samenhang.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">Als eerste bekijken en bespreken wij de Turkse film <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2758880/?ref_=tt_mv_close">Winter Sleep</a>. Wij hebben deze film destijds in de bioscoop gezien (in 't Hoogt in Utrecht, wat nu helaas geen theater meer is) en waren er danig van onder de indruk. Vandaar dat we van deze gelegenheid gebruik maken om hem nog een keer te zien.<br /><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhD1MAJdMEM7ATSjWRXXw0zmBjXFFEBBz1m0WNssYpblcjx0VsM1yeYbg9s0O3_0m6Pb60S3M1bUsKdibf4hWxDCyzLDCbwm3ptj4MR9nkwqlwKdEQ7yGyKlINPKWdgVCessC2dv7xfiwFCkSwo8PMNH7Hjwo0UZ9_IsJuiR4PqehP2HV2cDDdaheiPF5U/s1626/winter%20sleep.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1626" data-original-width="1190" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhD1MAJdMEM7ATSjWRXXw0zmBjXFFEBBz1m0WNssYpblcjx0VsM1yeYbg9s0O3_0m6Pb60S3M1bUsKdibf4hWxDCyzLDCbwm3ptj4MR9nkwqlwKdEQ7yGyKlINPKWdgVCessC2dv7xfiwFCkSwo8PMNH7Hjwo0UZ9_IsJuiR4PqehP2HV2cDDdaheiPF5U/w293-h400/winter%20sleep.jpg" width="293" /></a></div>Winter Sleep is uit 2014 en werd geregisseerd door de bekende Turkse regisseur Nuri Bilge Ceylan. De film heeft een duidelijke winterse sfeer. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Het verhaal speelt zich af in het prachtige Cappadocië en volgt Aydın, een voormalige acteur die nu een hotel beheert in de regio.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Aydın is een complexe persoon met verschillende lagen. Hij is een welgestelde man met intellectuele trekjes, maar hij staat ook voor uitdagingen in zijn persoonlijke leven, waaronder zijn relatie met zijn vrouw Nihal en zijn zus Necla. De film onthult geleidelijk de diepte van Aydıns karakter terwijl hij worstelt met zijn eigen overtuigingen en verantwoordelijkheden.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Naast het landschap vonden wij de dialogen in de film bijzonder indrukwekkend. Winter Sleep won de Gouden Palm op het Filmfestival van Cannes in 2014 en ontving lovende kritieken voor de cinematografie, regie en de diepgaande verkenning van menselijke emoties en complexiteit.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />In de aflevering van 18 december gaan wij deze film "diepgaand verkennen." Je kunt hem streamen via <a href="https://npo.nl/start/video/winter-sleep">NPO Plus</a> of Amazon Prime.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-66823020424538930382023-08-29T22:33:00.000+02:002023-08-29T22:33:17.909+02:00Zomerfilms 5: Still Alice<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">Onze vijfde en laatste zomerfilm is </span><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">Still Alice</i><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">, uit 2014. Deze film was ons aangeraden door Kevin van Schie, waarvoor dank.</span><span class="Apple-converted-space" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"> </span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /><i><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinjbwEWOhfKzENttY8rHi7prm8hcT8q2P8RZh1z4Ph3Qkg-ArWE2iQaDiobEWecXV7SV0C8dxMlNbWTzW6XxFirUXEH-gmdxovDjdCskCq4WCNP-ecTPsDL8rxt5kdUnW6DCr8nvV6QXYZBzDT9QU6NLpeu1zmOgR46nQw1jEZfT4JoEMNmr-4WHR1MUk/s1640/still%20alice.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1640" data-original-width="1108" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinjbwEWOhfKzENttY8rHi7prm8hcT8q2P8RZh1z4Ph3Qkg-ArWE2iQaDiobEWecXV7SV0C8dxMlNbWTzW6XxFirUXEH-gmdxovDjdCskCq4WCNP-ecTPsDL8rxt5kdUnW6DCr8nvV6QXYZBzDT9QU6NLpeu1zmOgR46nQw1jEZfT4JoEMNmr-4WHR1MUk/w270-h400/still%20alice.jpg" width="270" /></a></div>Still Alice</i> is gebaseerd op een gelijknamige roman van Lisa Genova.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Tijdens dit schrijven hebben Anita en ik de film nog niet gezien, maar we denken dat het een “safe bet” is dat de film in ieder geval zal overlappen met onze thema’s geheugen en indentiteit.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />De film vertelt het verhaal van Dr. Alice Howland (gespeeld door Julianne Moore, die voor haar spel een Oscar ontving), een gerenommeerde professor in de taalkunde die begint met het ervaren van geheugenverlies en verwarring. </span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Even terzijde: interessant genoeg had onze tweede zomerfilm, <i>Arrival</i>, ook een taalkundeprofessor als hoofdpersoon. Wie had gedacht dat hoogleraren in de linguïstiek zulk filmisch appeal zouden hebben?</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Alice krijgt te horen dat zij aan een zeldzame vorm van de ziekte van Alzheimer leidt. Deze vorm treft met name relatief jonge mensen. Naarmate de toestand van Alice verslechtert, worden zowel Alice als haar familie geconfronteerd met uitdagingen op emotioneel en psychologisch vlak. </span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><i style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></i><span style="font-size: large;"><i>Still Alice</i> gaat over de complexiteit van de ziekte van Alzheimer, de moeilijkheden waarmee degenen die de diagnose krijgen worden geconfronteerd, en de diepgaande invloed ervan op families en relaties.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Dit is duidelijk geen lichte kost, maar toch kijken wij ernaar uit deze film te zien. Op maandag 4 september staat de podcastaflevering waarin wij hem bespreken online. <i>Still Alice</i> kun je o.a. bekijken via Pathé Thuis, Amazon Prime of Apple TV.</span></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-19784333133850698462023-08-17T13:49:00.006+02:002023-08-17T20:08:48.283+02:00Zomerfilms 4: Her<div style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><div style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;">Met de vierde film in onze zomerreeks duiken we in het thema AI. De film <i>Ex Machina</i>, die we ook al een aantal keer in de podcast hebben genoemd, past hier goed bij. Toch hebben we gekozen voor een andere film die ons via sociale media werd aangeraden door Daniël Lakens. </span></div><div style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">We gaan de film <i>Her</i> bekijken, een romantisch </span></span><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">sciencefiction</span><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"> drama (kennelijk is dat een apart genre). </span><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">De film is gesch</span><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">reven en geregisseerd door Spike Jonze en is uit 2013. </span><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">Her</i><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"> speelt zich af in een nabije toekomst in een ietwat futuristische versie van Los Angeles, en volgt het verhaal van Theodore Twombly, gespeeld door Joaquin Phoenix, een eenzame en introverte man die werkt als professionele schrijver van persoonlijke brieven voor anderen. Theodore worstelt met de nasleep van zijn scheiding en zijn onvermogen om contact te maken met mensen.</span></span></div></div><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg69NL_2GIjjJ8G4PJmcocKuQQLm548T_Q7Eha8XSw7za7Bl-Ysnim9Oe3Ro6alTnyYZlZOvRm1Vgfz8El3MoxwZ3D4RwHeZp1W1TMIDltK1I2j0gB3zgfRwRrxYuxe9WnLmb1iCGzmKWnBQyfmjx7k_5DJWI8BOSfGoX9HJVydN8dO_10j0d-kJ8R_Tng/s1498/Her.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1498" data-original-width="1008" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg69NL_2GIjjJ8G4PJmcocKuQQLm548T_Q7Eha8XSw7za7Bl-Ysnim9Oe3Ro6alTnyYZlZOvRm1Vgfz8El3MoxwZ3D4RwHeZp1W1TMIDltK1I2j0gB3zgfRwRrxYuxe9WnLmb1iCGzmKWnBQyfmjx7k_5DJWI8BOSfGoX9HJVydN8dO_10j0d-kJ8R_Tng/w269-h400/Her.jpg" width="269" /></a></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Het centrale thema van de film draait om de relatie van Theodore met een geavanceerd besturingssysteem (OS) genaamd Samantha, ingesproken door Scarlett Johansson. Samantha is ontworpen om zich aan te passen en te evolueren op basis van de behoeften en interacties van de gebruiker, en ze wordt al snel een integraal onderdeel van Theodore's leven. </span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">De film verkent de complexiteit van menselijke relaties, intimiteit en de vervagende grenzen tussen mens en kunstmatige intelligentie. <i>Her</i> gaat in op vragen over de aard van liefde, de impact van technologie op menselijke emoties en de mogelijke gevolgen van het vormen van emotionele banden met niet-menselijke entiteiten. Nou, met die thematiek moeten wij wel wat kunnen.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">Amy Adams, die de hoofdrol speelde in onze tweede zomerfilm, <i>Arrival</i>, heeft ook een rol in deze film en is daarmee de MVP van onze zomerreeks. Gefeliciteerd, Amy!</span></div><p></p><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Als je wil weten wat wij over <i>Her</i> te zeggen hebben, luister dan naar aflevering 81 van Drang naar Samenhang, die op maandag 21 augustus online staat.</span></div><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Je kunt de film downloaden of streamen op verschillende plekken, zoals Pathé Thuis of Amazon Prime.</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Op 4 September volgt onze vijfde en laatste zomerfilm: <i>Still Alice.</i></span></p>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-5149295940293611792023-07-30T13:05:00.003+02:002023-07-31T11:55:08.273+02:00Zomerfilms 3: Rashomon<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Alweer een behoorlijk aantal jaren geleden werd er in filmtheater 't Hoogt in Utrecht een reeks films van Akira Kurosawa vertoond. Ik heb er toen een aantal gezien. Ik vond ze allemaal geweldig. Het meest is mij de film Ran bijgebleven, een verhaal gebaseerd op Shakespeare’s King Lear. Vooral de kleuren van de verschillende legers in de groene heuvels waren spectaculair. </span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Rashomon, de derde in onze reeks zomerfilms is in zwart-wit. Die film heb ik nog niet gezien, maar ik wil hem heel graag zien. Een podcastaflevering is uiteraard een uitgelezen gelegenheid hiervoor.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"><br /></span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBEk2mnT7CP-uJA4ATVxzo3uPcr2u34UeQLXEcWMNNv3x_RaoGVs5S0B_n_SSYYV0pQFyvPu-UymQ1Y-6kZpvz8uXXncdmaFGnEn8kdYb5Z5tw9A_ba3hMq24JidUbjtVXwBkFJNJKb-JwZvzbz0K0wHaubwRX4tZf6Y4xBAk-3Nj_8k_mUti6Lbj1W9A/s2048/rashomon.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2048" data-original-width="1440" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBEk2mnT7CP-uJA4ATVxzo3uPcr2u34UeQLXEcWMNNv3x_RaoGVs5S0B_n_SSYYV0pQFyvPu-UymQ1Y-6kZpvz8uXXncdmaFGnEn8kdYb5Z5tw9A_ba3hMq24JidUbjtVXwBkFJNJKb-JwZvzbz0K0wHaubwRX4tZf6Y4xBAk-3Nj_8k_mUti6Lbj1W9A/w281-h400/rashomon.jpg" width="281" /></a></div></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Het verhaal van "Rashomon" draait om een misdaad en de meervoudige perspectieven die worden gepresenteerd door de betrokken personages. De film speelt zich af in het feodale Japan en begint met drie personages die schuilen voor de regen bij de Rashomon-poort, een vervallen structuur. De drie personages zijn een houthakker, een priester en een gewone man. Terwijl ze praten over een recente misdaad, vertellen ze verschillende versies van hetzelfde voorval, wat leidt tot een complex en tegenstrijdig verhaal. De tegenstrijdige getuigenissen roepen vragen op over de aard van de waarheid, menselijke perceptie en geheugen en over de ongrijpbare aard van de werkelijkheid. De wil om die werkelijkheid te begrijpen kennen wij natuurlijk als de drang naar samenhang!</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />De vertelstructuur van de film, waarbij verschillende versies van hetzelfde voorval worden gepresenteerd, staat bekend als het "Rashomon-effect" en is een bekende term die wordt gebruikt om de ambiguïteit van de waarheid en de uiteenlopende perspectieven die mensen kunnen hebben op een bepaalde gebeurtenis te beschrijven.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Rashomon dateert uit 1950 en wordt vaak beschouwd als een van de beste films in de geschiedenis. De film heeft verschillende prijzen gewonnen, waaronder de Gouden Leeuw op het filmfestival van Venetië in 1951, waardoor de Japanse cinema internationaal werd erkend.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Kortom, het is zeker de moeite waard om dit meesterwerk samen met ons te bekijken! Omdat de film uit 1950 is, is hij nu in het publieke domein. Je kunt hem bijvoorbeeld <a href="https://ia802604.us.archive.org/30/items/rashomon-1950_202307/Rashomon%20(1950).mp4"><span class="s1">hier</span></a> gratis downloaden. De ondertitels zijn dan wel in het Engels. Op Amazon Prime Video kun je de film ook vinden en gratis bekijken (met Nederlandse ondertiteling, neem ik aan) met een proefabonnement op Filmbox Arthouse. Veel kijkplezier en tot horens in aflevering 80 die op maandag 7 augustus online zal staan!</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />De rest van ons zomerfilmprogramma ziet er als volgt uit:<br />21 augustus: Her<br />4 september: Still Alice</span></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-9673795098971517992023-07-16T20:24:00.002+02:002023-07-16T20:37:00.719+02:00Zomerfilms 2: Arrival<p class="p1" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;">Zoals aangekondigd in podcastaflevering 77, bespreken wij gedurende de zomer elke twee weken een film waarin een thema uit de podcast aan de orde komt. </span></p><p class="p1" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;">De tweede van onze zomerfilms is Arrival, een sciencefictionfilm uit 2016. De film is geregisseerd door Denis Villeneuve en gebaseerd op het korte verhaal "Story of Your Life" van Ted Chiang.<br /></span></span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"></span></p><div><p class="p2" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEv-3aFvLKFs21tb34Ef84I_uv580c5NtZEtTywK-AuY5XUNV259X2ALAAMaCNLrzloI1joC-ZPYR8-XH5H8tlFfoB2FYKsvjDik6HCxCkT2rDm-tXGOtFBUKOYqnNJAcPeC2cQnk31nia8917zxGXUnafAe-i_3Xnk7jOYNsDWsFoonpzhoUutnvpa4s/s1010/arrival.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1010" data-original-width="718" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEv-3aFvLKFs21tb34Ef84I_uv580c5NtZEtTywK-AuY5XUNV259X2ALAAMaCNLrzloI1joC-ZPYR8-XH5H8tlFfoB2FYKsvjDik6HCxCkT2rDm-tXGOtFBUKOYqnNJAcPeC2cQnk31nia8917zxGXUnafAe-i_3Xnk7jOYNsDWsFoonpzhoUutnvpa4s/w454-h640/arrival.jpg" width="454" /></a></div><p class="p2" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;">Arrival vertelt het verhaal van Dr. Louise Banks, een hoogleraar taalkunde die wordt ingeschakeld door het Amerikaanse leger om te communiceren met een buitenaardse soort die op aarde is aangekomen. Twaalf enorme buitenaardse ruimteschepen verschijnen op verschillende locaties over de hele wereld, wat leidt tot wijdverspreide paniek en onzekerheid.</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p2" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;"></span></p><p class="p2" style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue; font-size: large;">Naarmate de spanningen tussen naties toenemen, wordt het cruciaal om het doel van de buitenaardse wezens te begrijpen om een potentieel conflict te voorkomen.</span></p><div><br /></div><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Louise sluit zich aan bij een team wetenschappers dat belast is met het ontcijferen van de buitenaardse taal en het vaststellen van een communicatiemiddel. Terwijl ze dieper in de complexe geschreven en gesproken taal van de aliens duikt, begint Louise visioenen en herinneringen te krijgen… (Even wat puntjes voor de spanning.)</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Door haar inspanningen om de buitenaardse taal te begrijpen, ontdekt Louise niet alleen van alles over de bezoekers van een andere wereld, maar ook over zichzelf.</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Arrival is de enige van de vijf zomerfilms die wij al gezien hebben, maar aangezien dit alweer zo’n zeven jaar geleden is, kunnen we er met een frisse blik naar kijken. We verwachten (voordat we de film opnieuw gezien hebben) dat thema's als taal, communicatie, tijd en het belang van het begrijpen van anderen aan de orde zullen komen tijdens ons gesprek.</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Lijkt de communicatie met buitenaardse wezens je wat? Kijk dan met ons mee naar de film! Je kunt hem bijvoorbeeld bij <a href="https://www.pathe-thuis.nl/film/4451/arrival"><span class="s1">Pathé Thuis<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></a>bekijken voor een klein bedrag.</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">In aflevering 79, die online staat op maandag 24 juli, bespreken wij Arrival. We hebben er nu al zin in!</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">De rest van ons zomerprogramma ziet er als volgt uit:</span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">7 augustus: Rashomon<br />21 augustus: Her<br />4 september: Still Alice</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-10056670969101561492023-07-02T20:30:00.008+02:002023-07-16T20:35:31.653+02:00Zomerfilms 1: Pi<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Zoals aangekondigd in podcastaflevering 77, bespreken wij gedurende de zomer elke twee weken een film waarin een thema uit de podcast aan de orde komt. De eerste film is Pi.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="clear: left; float: left; font-size: medium; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="1158" data-original-width="832" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgdLtFwi89kBYGai-4r_vMYB2MdZCaXhnclq7rO_rtaHdGtm1bcRcSpwx8poU-1-VVyoeNucNhGemrnLKJffFqifgAZ4lshKiGlUyrIDDafUPxrJwWU1mQPUjSCWn--rz3JSscsQeAefLfML4alw0Qo0CsZy1-l-zPoL4H2mFk-DCcuRhrx-8hEYkB4ZPw=w459-h640" width="459" /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Pi is een psychologische thriller geregisseerd door Darren Aronofsky en uitgebracht in 1998. De film vertelt het verhaal van een briljante wiskundige genaamd Max Cohen, die geobsedeerd is door het vinden van patronen en numerieke betekenis in de wereld. Hij gelooft dat alles in de natuur begrepen kan worden aan de hand van getallen en dat er een universele wiskundige taal is die de geheimen van het bestaan kan ontsluiten.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Max ontdekt een mysterieus en ogenschijnlijk willekeurig wiskundig patroon dat hij van grote betekenis acht. Zijn obsessie met dit patroon leidt hem naar een gevaarlijke wereld van paranoia en samenzwering, aangezien verschillende groepen, waaronder een religieuze sekte en een Wall Street-bedrijf, geïnteresseerd raken in zijn ontdekking.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Naarmate Max dieper graaft in zijn zoektocht naar betekenis, verslechtert zijn mentale toestand en ervaart hij intense migraine en hallucinaties. Hij wordt verscheurd tussen zijn streven naar kennis en de impact ervan op zijn geestelijke gezondheid en persoonlijke relaties.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Lijkt het verhaal je wat? Kijk dan naar de film. Je kunt hem <a href="https://www.film.nl/film/pi">hier</a> downloaden voor een klein bedrag.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In aflevering 78, die online staat op maandag 10 juli, bespreken wij deze film.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">De rest van ons zomer programma ziet er als volgt uit:</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">- 24 juli:<span> <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2543164/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Arrival</a></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">- 7 augustus: <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042876/">Rashomon</a></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">- 21 augustus: <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1798709/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Her</a></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">- 4 september: <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3316960/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Still Alice</a></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Meer over Arrival in de volgende post.</span></div></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-89050861865334219262023-02-24T13:38:00.007+01:002024-03-06T10:19:21.455+01:00Complotdenken en complotdenkers<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"><b>Update 6 March, 2024</b></span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"><br /></span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">In mijn <a href="https://rolfzwaan.blogspot.com/2023/02/themas-van-de-podcast.html">vorige post</a> maakte ik een lijst van 11 thema’s van de podcast. Een van die thema’s is complotdenken. Er zijn zes afleveringen die het meest relevant zijn voor dit thema, waarvan er vier specifiek over complotdenken gaan. Dat zijn afleveringen 9, 18, 55, 76, 83, 84, 93.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"><br /></span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4fJb7PbTAMGLKKd76ICuYqSrCV09s3aVv_0THlOuNZ5uOSy1z58GvC_V4n5X4nUYBb-0-8UViqGjeuH3wEpRlvGjR7hKwPeBD84cPg47Z2ztfdJ6LckyK3F-nekWeHEOMhHjFx4KzfZnP9HdcEGEFQxMxDV5PBnGHXU39C1BKxNDAPPtvdn-lixbF/s1084/Maanlanding_Afl9.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1084" data-original-width="1078" height="414" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4fJb7PbTAMGLKKd76ICuYqSrCV09s3aVv_0THlOuNZ5uOSy1z58GvC_V4n5X4nUYBb-0-8UViqGjeuH3wEpRlvGjR7hKwPeBD84cPg47Z2ztfdJ6LckyK3F-nekWeHEOMhHjFx4KzfZnP9HdcEGEFQxMxDV5PBnGHXU39C1BKxNDAPPtvdn-lixbF/w411-h414/Maanlanding_Afl9.jpg" width="411" /></a></div><span style="font-size: large;">Aflevering 9 heet “complotverhalen.” We leggen daar uit waarom we spreken van verhalen en niet van theorieën. In het beneden geciteerde artikel werk ik dit idee wat verder uit. </span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Iedeen kent het complotverhaal dat de maanlanding fake geweest zou zijn, maar in deze aflevering besteden we aandacht aan twee relatief onbekende complotverhalen. Het eerste is dat Finland niet bestaat en het tweede gaat over het Tartaarse Rijk dat bestaan zou hebben, maar waarvan het bestaan verzwegen wordt door historici.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">In aflevering 18 contrasteren we complotdenken met kritisch denken. Complotdenkers zeggen vaak “ik doe mijn eigen onderzoek.” Wat bedoelen ze hiermee en waarom is het onzin? We hebben het er ook over dat geloof in een bepaald complotverhaal vaak leidt tot geloof in andere complotverhalen.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"><br /></span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Zijn complotdenkers paranoïde? Die vraag proberen we te beantwoorden in aflevering 55. We maken hierbij gebruik van de laatste inzichten uit de psychologie en psychiatrie.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">In aflevering 76 behandelen we een aantal actuele zaken over complotdenken. Ook komt aan de orde dat complotdenkers een veel te rooskleurig beeld van hun eigen begrip van de wereld hebben. Hoe komt dit nu?</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">We raken niet uitgepraat over complotdenken. In afleveringen 83 en 84 hebben we het over mensen die geloven dat de aarde plat is. Hoe komen ze op dit absurde idee? En waarom houden ze eraan vast als even logisch nadenken aantoont dat het hele idee onzinnig is? </span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Om complotdenken tegen te gaan is er recentelijk een spel ontwikkeld dat iedereen gratis kan spelen. Dit spel bespreken we in aflevering 93.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Er spelen altijd veel complotverhalen rond bekende personen. Een goed voorbeeld is Taylor Swift. We bespreken complotdenken rond haar en haar rol in het stimuleren van de drang naar samenhang in haar fans in aflevering 102. In het begin van de aflevering speel ik wat akkoorden van haar nummer Antihero op gitaar.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Afleveringen 3 en 8 hebben ook met complotdenken te maken, maar meer zijdelings. </span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">In aflevering 3 gaat het over de drang naar samenhang zoals die zich manifesteert op onschuldige wijze in het plezier dat wij hebben in het oplossen van puzzels en het kijken naar <i>Wie is de Mol? e</i>n op minder onschuldige wijze in het complotverhaal QAnon. Hoofdstuk 16 van mijn boek <a href="https://www.boompsychologie.nl/product/100-10262_Drang-naar-samenhang">Drang naar Samenhang</a> gaat ook over dit onderwerp.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />In aflevering 8 gaat het over patronen die we menen waar te nemen, maar die er niet zijn (zie je het verband met complotverhalen?). Dat hebben we allemaal wel eens. Een bekend voorbeeld is het Mama Appelsap-effect In het boek beschrijf ik hoe ik na jaren in Florida gewoond en hardgelopen te hebben beducht was geraakt voor gifslangen, die regelmatig op het pad lagen, en jaren laten nog verschrikt opsprong in het Kralingse Bos of in de Zeister bossen als ik een boomwortel tegenkwam die op een slang leek. Deze ervaring beschrijf ik ook in hoofdstuk 11 van het boek.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">De afleveringen zijn te beluisteren via de bekende podcast apps of via de Podcastspeler op deze pagina.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Literatuur</span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X22001348">Zwaan, R.A. (2022). Conspiracy thinking as situation-model construction. <i>Current Opinion in Psychology, 47,</i> 101413.</a> </span></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-9040817959955805202023-02-12T19:58:00.022+01:002024-03-15T16:00:30.136+01:00Thema's van de podcast<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><b>Update 13 maart 2024</b></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Van onze podcast Drang naar Samenhang zijn inmiddels meer dan 100 afleveringen verschenen. De podcast gaat net als deze blog over “het begrijpen van de wereld om ons heen,” maar onder dit thema valt natuurlijk van alles, zoals de woordwolk van de podcast laat zien.</span><br /><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisPgzG_6qW_npWih3rChkBZXQJQfX6PjL0xFThL11qjBvnJK5hpAm3jITkGTORLiaTiz81zIcF3ZFje-FJvYns6ZGcVMOrcPXMkfqrcfjwtbTGU17d0iCV050xzcRFOtLhx5j2Z35TbJ3PEON8S6Qezyg7cZIqMu-2eIOU9h1mvaQRX_aSVt4-5YFQ/s1024/wordcloud.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="580" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisPgzG_6qW_npWih3rChkBZXQJQfX6PjL0xFThL11qjBvnJK5hpAm3jITkGTORLiaTiz81zIcF3ZFje-FJvYns6ZGcVMOrcPXMkfqrcfjwtbTGU17d0iCV050xzcRFOtLhx5j2Z35TbJ3PEON8S6Qezyg7cZIqMu-2eIOU9h1mvaQRX_aSVt4-5YFQ/w580-h580/wordcloud.jpg" width="580" /></a></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;">Ik geef hier een overzicht van de belangrijkste thema’s voor de geïnteresseerde (nieuwe) luisteraar. Per thema heb ik aangegeven welke afleveringen daarbij horen. Nu is het natuurlijk niet zo, dat elke aflevering netjes bij onder één thema valt, dus je zie sommige afleveringen onder meerdere thema’s gerangschikt. Je kunt de afleveringen direct beluisteren via de podcastspeler op deze pagina of via jouw favoriete podcastapp.</div></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span>1. </span><span>Complotdenken. Complotdenken is misschien wel de meest saillante uiting van de drang naar samenhang. Luister naar afleveringen 1, 8, 9, 18, 55, 76, 83, 84, 93 en 102 voor wat we te zeggen hebben over dit thema. De meest recente afleveringen gaan over Taylor Swift.</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">2. Taal en commnicatie. Taal en communicatie spelen in bijna alle afleveringen wel een rol, maar deze afleveringen zijn speciaal aan dit thema gewijd: 5, 6, 12, 23, 30 39, 69, 79 en 94, die gaat over het voeren van een goed gesprek.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">3. Verhalen. Verhalen spelen ook een centrale rol in de podcast. Ze zijn het meest prominent aanwezig in afleveringen 2, 6, 9, 10, 23, 28 en 34, maar natuurlijk ook in afleveringen 78 en 79, waarin we de films <a href="https://rolfzwaan.blogspot.com/2023/07/films-voor-de-podcast-1-pi.html">Pi</a> en Arrival bespreken.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">4. Sociale media en de effecten ervan. De sociale media duiken overal op in de podcast, maar komen het meest aan de orde in afleveringen 1, 21, 22, 25, 31, 32, 47, 49 en</span><span style="font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">54</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">5. Misinformatie, bullshit. Misinformatie en bullshit worden het gemakkelijkst verspreid via de sociale media, maar verdienen toch specifieke aandacht. Die krijgen ze in aflevering 4, 7, 8, 22, 31, 32, 47, 65 en 70.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">6. Denken. Over denkprocessen gaat het doorlopend in de podcast, maar het meest in afleveringen 3, 8, 11, 13, 17, 18, 19, 36, 53, 54, 57, 64, 67 en 70. Ook in aflevering 78, waarin we de film Pi bespreken, gaat het over denkprocessen.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">7. Kennis. Wat weten we eigenlijk en wat denken we te weten? Luister voor dit onderwerp naar afleveringen 40, 41, 44 en 101, de aflevering over gezond verstand.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">8. Persoonlijkheid en identiteit. In verschillende afleveringen komen deze thema’s aan de orde, met name in 14, 16, 20, 26, 27, 29, 37, 44, 45 en 63.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">9. Geheugen. Zonder geheugen geen taal, denken, kennis, persoonlijkheid, identiteit en sociale media. Over geheugen gaat het in afleveringen 16, 20, 43, 45, 46, 56, 68 en 77.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">10. Beleving van onze omgeving. Hoe wij de wereld om ons heen (voorzover deze niet tekstueel of digitaal is) beleven kun je beluisteren in afleveringen 19, 24, 33, 38, 43, 48, 50, 53, 54, 62, 73 , 74, 75 88, 91, 92, 97 en 99.</span><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">11. Artificial intelligence. We zijn momenteel gefascineerd door dit onderwerp met de komst van ChatGPT en Bing en hun impact op de maatschappij, zoals deze afleveringen, laten zien: 57, 58, 59, 71 en 89.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">We zijn voorlopig nog niet uitgepraat over deze thema’s — de wereld en het psychologisch onderzoek staan niet stil — maar ongetwijfeld zullen er hier en daar wel andere thema’s bijkomen in de komende tijd. Eén interessant nieuwe thema zal zelfs zeer binnenkort aan dit overzicht worden toegevoegd.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-23226428456051147202023-01-27T18:37:00.001+01:002023-01-27T18:49:14.320+01:00 Waarom lijkt het leven steeds sneller te gaan?<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTanB0O0i0bsrCzFQoj-MvVeJPmu4TgiqB9TlhupW2o2TsjS-u-Pg0yhW9HAXvOX5vPvVLGaIZ5b4vM_hQZYZsEFRPz5xlT3SfMKpuWmgN4uig7VdF7SVFImY5qZO2xuse6fQDmDhfU5sK6KiooZyRIlylOi9KV0Ea9U9eKf7KwASLck3R6QdcCVLx/s738/The-Morning-Show-Trailer-2167285145.jpeg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="389" data-original-width="738" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTanB0O0i0bsrCzFQoj-MvVeJPmu4TgiqB9TlhupW2o2TsjS-u-Pg0yhW9HAXvOX5vPvVLGaIZ5b4vM_hQZYZsEFRPz5xlT3SfMKpuWmgN4uig7VdF7SVFImY5qZO2xuse6fQDmDhfU5sK6KiooZyRIlylOi9KV0Ea9U9eKf7KwASLck3R6QdcCVLx/w497-h262/The-Morning-Show-Trailer-2167285145.jpeg" width="497" /></a></div><span style="font-size: large;">The Morning Show is een TV show die gaat over een TV Show met Jennifer Aniston en Reese Witherspoon in de hoofdrol. Aan het eind van Seizoen 2 heeft de ene hoofdpersoon corona en dreigt “gecanceld” te worden, terwijl de andere een drugsverslaafde broer heeft die vermist is. Tegelijkertijd is het voortbestaan van de show en eigenlijk de hele omroep in gevaar, is een belangrijke persoon van de show net overleden, hebben allerlei andere personages hun eigen sores en staan we aan het begin van de coronapandemie.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Ik hou het even vaag om geen spoilers weg te geven, maar het punt is duidelijk. Er gebeurt van alles in het korte tijdsbestek van één aflevering. Dit is typerend voor heel veel series die we op dit moment onze huiskamers in kunnen streamen. Als je een oude film of serie ziet, valt op hoe weinig er relatief gesproken gebeurt.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Ook op andere vlakken lijkt het leven sneller te gaan. Trends volgen elkaar steeds sneller op. Een recente studie laat dit op verschillende manieren zien. De onderzoekers hebben onder andere gekeken naar Twitter hashtags, bezoekersaantallen van films, citaties naar wetenschappelijke artikelen en nog wat andere zaken. Onderwerpen worden steeds sneller van de troon gestoten, dit geldt voor de populairste hashtag, de meest bezochte film en de meest geciteerde artikelen in een periode.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Dus het lijkt niet alleen zo dat het leven sneller gaat, er zijn aanwijzingen dat het ook echt zo is. Deze versnelling in het leven kan mogelijk verklaard worden door aandacht, in het bijzonder selectieve aandacht.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Op elk moment van de dag word je blootgesteld aan allerlei prikkels. Terwijl je deze blogpost leest, zit je misschien op de bank met je laptop. Je zou je aandacht kunnen richten op hoe comfortabel de rugleuning voelt, of hoe fijn het is om je voeten omhoog te kunnen doen na een rondje hardlopen. Misschien hoor je de vogels fluiten of een auto voorbij rijden. Is dat de vuilniswagen? Heb je de papierbak wel buiten gezet? Niet vergeten trouwens dat de jaarlijkse vogeltelling binnenkort is.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Maar nee, dit alles gaat aan jou voorbij. Omdat jouw cognitieve energie beperkt is, maak je een selectie uit de veelheid aan prikkels. Je richt jouw aandacht op het lezen van deze blogpost (waarvoor dank).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Net zoals jij richten ook andere mensen hun aandacht op bepaalde zaken en kiezen ze ervoor om andere zaken te negeren. Handige zakenmensen zijn zich al eeuwen bewust van het feit dat het voordelen heeft de aandacht van veel mensen, de collectieve aandacht, op hetzelfde te richten, namelijk op hun product. Dit doen ze onder andere door aantrekkelijke mensen met hun product in verband te brengen. Zo maken George Clooney en Brad Pitt reclame voor koffie en Jennifer Aniston en Reese Witherspoon voor deze blogpost.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Het gevecht om onze collectieve aandacht is door de komst van de digitale media alleen maar heviger geworden. Bedrijven en individuen verdringen elkaar op het toneel. Opinieleiders proberen telkens opnieuw op Twitter hashtags te bedenken die de meeste aandacht trekken. Vandaar dat de “trending topics” elkaar steeds sneller afwisselen en dat onze aandacht steeds korter op bepaalde onderwerpen is gericht.<br /><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Terug naar The <i>Morning Show</i>. Door veel dramatische gebeurtenissen in een verhaal te proppen, hopen de makers van die TV-serie jouw aandacht te trekken en vast te houden. Dat laatste is steeds moeilijker omdat we gewend raken aan snel opeenvolgende gebeurtenissen en onze aandacht dus steeds vluchtiger wordt. Makers van TV series gaan dan een versnelling hoger schakelen, waardoor de dramatische gebeurtenissen zich steeds sneller afwisselen.</span></div><p class="p2" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Geen wonder dat het leven sneller lijkt te gaan.</span></p><p class="p2" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 12px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><i><span style="font-size: large;">Wil je meer weten over dit onderwerp, luister dan naar aflevering 53 van de podcast.</span></i></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><i><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></i></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: large;">Literatuur</span></span></span></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-6c784177-7fff-d577-fc42-72ba8e08bad7"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lorenz-Spreen, P., Mønsted, B.M., Hövel, P. et al. (2019). Accelerating dynamics of collective attention. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nature Communications</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, 1759. </span></span></span></p>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-60093989083864790552023-01-02T18:45:00.004+01:002023-01-02T20:26:36.691+01:00Je weg vinden<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">Wanneer wij ons voortbewegen in de wereld, dan navigeren wij, als we tenminste niet als een kip zonder kop willen rondlopen. We hebben hiervoor hulpmiddelen zoals kaarten en GPS tot onze beschikking. Je kunt deze hulpmiddelen zien als ons externe geheugen. Alle informatie die een kaart of een GPS ons geeft, hoeven we immers niet zelf te onthouden. Maar we kunnen ook navigeren op basis van ons interne geheugen, de informatie die we wel zelf hebben opgeslagen, en daar wil ik het hier over hebben.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">De stad of het dorp waarin wij wonen kennen we over het algemeen goed, in ieder geval voor wat betreft de locaties die voor ons relevant zijn. Op basis van onze ervaringen met deze locaties hebben we een cognitieve kaart (cognitive map) van onze omgeving ontwikkeld. Wij zijn trouwens niet de enigen die dit doen. Decennia van onderzoek hebben aangetoond dat bijvoorbeeld ratten ook zulke cognitieve kaarten maken.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">Nu hebben wij mensen niet alleen ruimtelijke voorstellingen van specifieke steden of dorpen in ons geheugen (de ratten laten we even achter in hun doolhofjes), maar ook meer algemene, schematische voorstellingen. We hebben bijvoorbeeld een schematische voorstelling van een typisch Nederlands dorp. Als we een winkel zoeken, dan weten we dat we in de buurt van de kerk moeten zijn.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">Bij het navigeren maken we zowel gebruik van cognitieve kaarten als van schematische voorstellingen. Die schematische voorstellingen helpen ons te navigeren in onbekende plaatsen, bijvoorbeeld het Spaanse stadje waar we op vakantie zijn. Tijdens dat navigeren ontwikkelen we dan een cognitieve kaart voor dit specifieke stadje op basis van onze ervaringen.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">We kunnen niet alleen op schema’s vertrouwen, ook onze cognitieve kaart hebben we nodig. Elke plaats heeft immers unieke karakteristieken. Als in Dalfsen de patatzaak naast de kerk is, hoeft dit in Waddinxveen niet ook zo te zijn.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPQhVYPNC-8vuIjFMNBJhPD5dGdr--DGAxw0JgHy5PLW1GnBa4VLnpSTW5AnR4h6l7yQSLsxM6SoPC8fQKRGbOtQn6TF1tM6Dt_b7uImI5bhFTmHQi-U5YHeopIh2oB5hehxclazLjfQReCVnAifWHwTEan6EkdcOWZyniF0XmYI7ER3QHpfBEM-Z7/s728/utrecht-netherlands-dom-tower-cathedral-square-preview.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="clear: left; float: left; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="539" data-original-width="728" height="321" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPQhVYPNC-8vuIjFMNBJhPD5dGdr--DGAxw0JgHy5PLW1GnBa4VLnpSTW5AnR4h6l7yQSLsxM6SoPC8fQKRGbOtQn6TF1tM6Dt_b7uImI5bhFTmHQi-U5YHeopIh2oB5hehxclazLjfQReCVnAifWHwTEan6EkdcOWZyniF0XmYI7ER3QHpfBEM-Z7/w433-h321/utrecht-netherlands-dom-tower-cathedral-square-preview.jpg" width="433" /></span></span></a><span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">Het type stad waarin mensen opgroeien heeft invloed op de ruimtelijke schema’s die ze vormen. Neem mensen die opgegroeid zijn in een Europese stad als Utrecht of Praag. Zo’n stad is veelal organisch gegroeid. De straten zijn vaak niet recht en niet alle kruisingen zijn negentig graden. Europeanen zijn gewend te navigeren in zulke steden. Ze letten dan vaak op bepaalde oriëntatiepunten, zoals een kerktoren, een brug of een tankstation. Als ze elkaar de weg wijzen, is het vaak iets in de trant van “over de brug linksaf en dan voorbij de kerk naar rechts.”</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">In Noord-Amerika is het anders. Steden zijn daar vaak gebouwd op basis van een raster. Bijna alle wegen zijn recht en bijna alle kruisingen zijn 90 graden (in Manhattan is Broadway hierop een uitzondering die de regel bevestigt). Dit heeft invloed op de cognitieve kaarten en schema’s die de inwoners van zulke steden vormen. Als Amerikanen elkaar de weg wijzen, dan zeggen ze iets als “drie blokken naar het noorden en dan twee naar het westen.” Ze kijken raar op als je over tankstations of kerken begint.</span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifCHFrT49qHfCqDkvrh3iA6_kM5zozNxwIQy__9TU0DvZ8S1k-OdZYcKfmGn2mtg-_gqFFjOaM532c0m1THioOhdkajMGaEx7JO-Zk7v5BzmzkjPbjWhQpDL1C2sUphIC5msDj8bdOVURD58OKvRtFb4Jla98wJwgSZDgo3DC-j8_f7SuM7I8jfQTj/s1024/hammonds-new-guide-map-of-manhattan-and-the-bronx-1ae164.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="744" data-original-width="1024" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifCHFrT49qHfCqDkvrh3iA6_kM5zozNxwIQy__9TU0DvZ8S1k-OdZYcKfmGn2mtg-_gqFFjOaM532c0m1THioOhdkajMGaEx7JO-Zk7v5BzmzkjPbjWhQpDL1C2sUphIC5msDj8bdOVURD58OKvRtFb4Jla98wJwgSZDgo3DC-j8_f7SuM7I8jfQTj/w408-h297/hammonds-new-guide-map-of-manhattan-and-the-bronx-1ae164.jpg" width="408" /></span></a></div><span style="font-size: large;">Recent onderzoek op basis van het spel <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dn_bnX_UHaA&ab_channel=AlzheimersResearchUK"><span class="s1">Sea Hero Quest</span></a> laat zien dat mensen die opgegroeid zijn in rastersteden zoals New York of Buenos Aires minder goed navigeren dan mensen die in steden zoals Rome of Parijs zijn opgegroeid. Waarschijnlijk komt dit omdat het navigeren gemakkelijker is in een rasterstad dan in een stad die organisch gegroeid is. In een Europese stad moet je meer op oriëntatiepunten zoals kerken en bruggen letten en dit komt je van pas op allerlei plekken die niet in een raster liggen.<br /><br />Wil je meer weten over hoe wij navigeren, hoe het kan dat Londense taxichauffeurs de hele stad in hun hoofd hebben zitten en of mannen beter kunnen navigeren dan vrouwen? Luister dan naar aflevering 52 van de podcast (zie boven). Wil je meer weten over hoe wij landkaarten begrijpen, lees dan Hoofdstuk 3 van het boek <a href="https://www.boompsychologie.nl/100-10262_Drang-naar-samenhang?utm_source=Webpower&utm_medium=email&utm_content=button-drang%2520%257C%2520button&utm_campaign=PB%2520Drang%2520naar%2520samenhang"><span class="s2" style="color: #103cc0;">Drang naar Samenhang: De Psychologie van het Begrijpen</span></a>.<br /><br />Literatuur<br />Farzanfar, D., Spiers, H.J., Moscovitch, M. et al. (2022). From cognitive maps to spatial schemas. Nature Reviews Neuroscience https://doi-org.eur.idm.oclc.org/10.1038/s41583-022-00655-9</span></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-38212943767396871492022-12-19T20:34:00.004+01:002023-01-04T18:15:56.478+01:00De psychologie van de feestdagen<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3YvHK73w4Uj1TPuwz9btq0-W5_8Loe-AOaA367Gd0QiruGmVSpObOQbDuUaPb1ap5JkivI-YXpJ1WHrKxw5mKIYHRTJ0NxyJEPnCalX5FrWr40h5daX3dGwj_e225ICJ5b251qJp3FYKB7WX2tzbl35DzfvWt-dhI8zyqOxG2jxhdmIZwKfprabzH/s1600/Adventmarkt_BKK_2022.jpeg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3YvHK73w4Uj1TPuwz9btq0-W5_8Loe-AOaA367Gd0QiruGmVSpObOQbDuUaPb1ap5JkivI-YXpJ1WHrKxw5mKIYHRTJ0NxyJEPnCalX5FrWr40h5daX3dGwj_e225ICJ5b251qJp3FYKB7WX2tzbl35DzfvWt-dhI8zyqOxG2jxhdmIZwKfprabzH/w481-h360/Adventmarkt_BKK_2022.jpeg" width="481" /></a></div><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: large;">De feestdagen komen eraan. Wat zeg ik? Ze zijn ten dele al begonnen, zoals deze adventsmarkt in Bad Kleinkirchheim, Oostenrijk laat zien. </span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">Bij feestdagen horen tradities, gebruiken en rituelen. Vooral rituelen spelen een bijzondere rol, omdat veel feestdagen een religieuze achtergrond hebben. Maar wat is eigenlijk een ritueel en hoe is een ritueel psychologisch relevant?</span><span class="Apple-converted-space" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"> </span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">Om met die eerste vraag te beginnen, een ritueel is een (a) </span><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial;">vooraf gedefinieerde reeks die worden gekenmerkt door starheid, formaliteit en herhaling, die (b) </span><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial;">is ingebed in een groter systeem van symboliek en betekenis, maar (c) </span><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial;">elementen bevat die geen direct instrumenteel doel hebben.</span><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial;"> </span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial;">Ik zal dat even uitleggen.<br /></span><br />Een ritueel heeft een grotere starheid dan bijvoorbeeld een gewoonte. Je zou een ritueel kunnen zien als een bijzonder star script. Over scripts heb ik het veel in het boek <a href="https://www.boompsychologie.nl/product/100-10262_Drang-naar-samenhang"><span class="s2">Drang naar Samenhang</span></a>. Scripts zijn stereotypische opeenvolgingen van gebeurtenissen.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br /><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Een bezoek aan een restaurant is hier een voorbeeld van. Er gebeuren altijd min of meer dezelfde dingen in een restaurant. Er is een locatie met bepaalde ruimtes (keuken, eetzaal). Er zijn personen met specifieke rollen (klant, serveerder, chef), voorwerpen met bepaalde functies (servies, bestek, menu’s) en er zijn bepaalde gebeurtenissen die zich in een vaste volgorde afspelen (je komt binnen, bestelt, eet, betaalt en vertrekt). </span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Omdat wij een mentale voorstelling hebben van wat er zoal gebeurt in een restaurant, weten wij wat te doen als we er een bezoeken en begrijpen we wat er normaal gesproken in een restaurant gebeurt. Maar de details van restaurantbezoeken verschillen van keer tot keer. Het is bijvoorbeeld niet zo, dat je op een speciale manier naar je tafel moet schrijden, je altijd hetzelfde moet bestellen, of dat de culinaire ervaring mislukt is als je je vork in je rechterhand hebt. Een script staat dus variatie toe.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><div style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Bij rituelen is er veel minder variatie. Een ritueel moet heel precies gevolgd worden, anders is het ritueel verpest. Bij een verkeerde beweging bij een rituele slachting, wordt het vlees bijvoorbeeld als onrein afgekeurd.</span></div><div style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUIF9XZZnQxP9Ryc9ln6Jlj3Cr-PkubCBUEabykDllE1aLgmCz82QzraxvbzeKHNDQrb8FxtpWx1jFy-61B3V3zVjQ4gLUbkHBm6OvQblJMnEnaez86H9SAQnS6tvUBrbsH_r0rwBQ281s2e3TxGzF4MWkH0nTmSmEIZ5S3eMromnIDnpsHOmP1e_u/s1600/Kerk_BKK_winter_2022.jpeg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1180" data-original-width="1600" height="294" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUIF9XZZnQxP9Ryc9ln6Jlj3Cr-PkubCBUEabykDllE1aLgmCz82QzraxvbzeKHNDQrb8FxtpWx1jFy-61B3V3zVjQ4gLUbkHBm6OvQblJMnEnaez86H9SAQnS6tvUBrbsH_r0rwBQ281s2e3TxGzF4MWkH0nTmSmEIZ5S3eMromnIDnpsHOmP1e_u/w399-h294/Kerk_BKK_winter_2022.jpeg" width="399" /></span></a></div></div><div style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Een ander kenmerk van rituelen is dat ze zoals gezegd een bepaalde symboliek. Een hostie is bijvoorbeeld niet gewoon een snack voor de kerkganger, maar staat voor het lichaam van Christus.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div><div style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Kenmerkend voor een ritueel is ook dat het vaak niet duidelijk is wat nu precies het doel is van de handelingen die er deel van uitmaken. Zie hiervoor ook deze oude <a href="https://rolfzwaan.blogspot.com/2013/07/let-sabers-rattle-cross-cultural.html"><span class="s2">blogpost</span></a> van mij.</span></div></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Rituelen zijn hoofdzakelijk onderzocht in disciplines zoals de sociologie en de culturele antropologie. In deze vakgebieden is men vooral geïnteresseerd in groepsaspecten. Er is daarom weinig bekend over de psychologische aspecten van rituelen. Een artikel uit 2018 (zie beneden) probeert hier verandering in te brengen. </span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Een vanuit psychologisch oogpunt interessante vraag is wat rituelen relevant maakt.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Rituelen kunnen (a) emoties, (b) prestatiedoelen en (c) sociale verbinding met anderen reguleren, betogen de auteurs van de wetenschappelijke bijdrage. <br /><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Voor wat betreft het eerste kun je bijvoorbeeld denken aan mensen met een angststoornis. Die ontwikkelen vaak rituelen om hun emoties te beteugelen. Om een bepaald gevoel van controle te ervaren, doen ook sporters bijvoorbeeld hun schoenen steevast in dezelfde volgorde aan, slaan ze een kruisje bij het betreden van het veld, of hebben ze wel een zeer uitgebreid ritueel, zoals <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Du_TYSd-dp8"><span class="s2">Mark van Bommel</span></a> vroeger. René van der Gijp geeft in de video op plastische wijze aan dat zulke rituelen misschien niet overal inzetbaar zijn.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Voor het belang van rituelen met betrekking tot prestaties kunnen we in de voetballerij blijven. Tijdens de afgelopen WK was er veel discussie over het nemen van penalty’s en of hierop getraind kan worden. Velen menen dat dit niet kan, omdat je de druk van het nemen van een penalty in een vol stadion niet kan simuleren. Marco van Basten, die als analist optrad, was het hier wel mee eens, maar meende dat rituelen een rol kunnen spelen. Het hebben van een ritueel tijdens het lopen naar de stip en het nemen van de penalty leidt namelijk af van negatieve gedachten over het mogelijke missen van de penalty. Je bent bezig met de handelingen van het ritueel en hebt geen ruimte meer in je werkgeheugen voor afleidende gedachten.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Rituelen reguleren ook de sociale verbindingen tussen individuen. In een groepsritueel verrichten de deelnemers dezelfde handeling. Ze hebben aandacht voor hetzelfde en deze gedeelde aandacht versterkt de onderlinge band. Bovendien geven mensen die meedoen aan een ritueel aan dat ze bij de groep willen horen.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Feestdagen bestaan deels uit rituelen, maar deels ook uit gebruiken (zoals glühwein drinken op de kerstmarkt of oliebollen eten tijdens de jaarwisseling) en gewoonten, die per familie kunnen verschillen (bijvoorbeeld sjoelen op oudjaarsdag of een Disneyfilm bekijken tijdens de Kerst). Sommige van deze activiteiten hebben het karakter van een script (bijvoorbeeld een bezoek aan de kerstmarkt), terwijl andere een vrijere vorm hebben (soms mag oma beginnen met sjoelen en soms ome Henk). </span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Als wij de scripts (van gewoontes tot rituelen) kennen, kunnen wij begrijpen wat er om ons heen gebeurt op een feestdag, en kunnen we ons op een daarmee overeenstemmende wijze gedragen. Kennen wij de scripts niet, dan vallen we al snel door de mand als buitenstaanders. <br /><br /></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Wil je meer weten over de psychologie van de feestdagen? Luister dan naar aflevering 50 van onze podcast (zie de podcastplayer hiernaast of je favoriete podcast app).<br /><br />Literatuur<br /><br />Hobson, N. M., Schroeder, J., Risen, J. L., Xygalatas, D., & Inzlicht, M. (2018). The Psychology <br />of Rituals: An Integrative Review and Process-Based Framework. <i>Personality and Social <br /></i><i>Psychology Review, 22(3</i>), 260–284. https://doi-org.eur.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/1088868317734944</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Foto's: Anita Eerland</span></div><p style="text-align: left;"></p><p class="p1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"></p>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-7354645301680518622022-12-16T18:47:00.013+01:002023-01-05T15:55:10.954+01:00De psychologie van het begrijpen<div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="color: black;">Jarenlang heb ik een Engelstalige blog gehad, Zeistgeist (geen tikfout, maar een woordspeling op mijn woonplaats), waarin ik over wetenschappelijk onderzoek binnen de psychologie schreef. Die blog was bedoeld voor vakgenoten over de hele wereld.<br /></span><span style="color: black;"> <br /></span><span style="color: black;">Zeistgeist is nu omgedoopt tot Drang naar Samenhang. De nieuwe titel verwijst naar de drang die wij allemaal voelen om samenhang te zien in wat er om ons heen gebeurt, of waarover ons verteld wordt in verhalen.</span><span style="color: black;"><br /></span><span style="color: black;"><br /></span><span style="color: black;">Ik ga verder in het Nederlands (although an occasional post in English is not out of the question). Ik heb gemerkt dat ik het de laatste jaren steeds belangrijker vind als wetenschapper om te communiceren met mensen meer in mijn directe omgeving. Ik denk dat de coronaperiode daar iets mee te maken heeft. </span></span></div><div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="color: black;"><br /></span><span style="color: black;">Drang naar Samenhang is een blog voor iedereen (wat je achtergrond ook is), die geïnteresseerd is in de psychologie van het begrijpen. Wat ik precies bedoel met de psychologie van het begrijpen, kun je lezen in mijn boek </span><a href="https://www.boompsychologie.nl/auteur/110-9032_Zwaan/100-10262_Drang-naar-samenhang">Drang naar Samenhang</a><span style="color: black;">. Hier is een </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfrfB4vzNIM">interview</a><span style="color: black;"> over dat boek. <br /></span><span style="color: black;"> <br /></span><span style="color: black;">Naast een boek en een blog met de naam Drang naar Samenhang, maak ik, samen met mijn vrouw Dr. Anita Eerland, een wekelijkse podcast. En ja, ook die podcast heet Drang naar Samenhang en gaat over de psychologie van het begrijpen. Zo zie je maar, alles hangt samen. ;) Die podcast kun je beluisteren via jouw favoriete podcast app of rechtsboven op deze pagina.</span></span></div><div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Het boek en de podcast behandelen onderwerpen die zich uitstrekken van het begrijpen van woorden tot begrijpen van complexe gebeurtenissen. Bij die pogingen tot begrijpen kan van alles fout gaan: we interpreteren of onthouden dingen verkeerd, we redeneren niet goed, we communiceren onhandig, we worden, of we het willen of niet, gemanipuleerd door anderen. Sommigen van ons worden zelfs complotdenkers. Hoe gaat dit alles in zijn werk en welke rol spelen de (sociale) media hierin? </span></div><div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="color: black;">In deze blog zal ik aandacht aan diezelfde thema’s besteden. </span><span style="color: black;">Waarom dan ook nog een blog als je al een boek en een podcast hebt? Goede vraag.<br /></span><span style="color: black;"> <br /></span><span style="color: black;">Het boek is natuurlijk al geschreven en onze podcastafleveringen zijn gemiddeld zo’n 40 minuten lang. In deze blog kan ik kort op actuele gebeurtenissen reageren. Voor de achtergrond zal ik verwijzen naar het boek of de podcast. <br /></span><span style="color: black;"> <br /></span><span style="color: black;">Op die manier hoop ik je een beetje te helpen de wereld om je heen beter te begrijpen.</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Helvetica Neue";"><br /></span></span></div><div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><p style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 8.5pt;"><br /></span></p>
Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-84228764338095027202021-10-12T15:06:00.001+02:002021-10-15T14:06:23.332+02:00Thanks, Everyone<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQXOE6zY4Ydn8jdm1vA2Nv91u97ykx9ZgCUo_Ll8EJfG51dkq_NFKc9ktgJoaZHf0hl8pUCUzjYC-YdLOpd_30BtcejViRQrBYHZv2YDalNglJt7APXvRDvp_1-B9sj6K683ibg4alWzA/s1452/Schermafbeelding+2021-10-12+om+13.01.57.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1452" data-original-width="1444" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQXOE6zY4Ydn8jdm1vA2Nv91u97ykx9ZgCUo_Ll8EJfG51dkq_NFKc9ktgJoaZHf0hl8pUCUzjYC-YdLOpd_30BtcejViRQrBYHZv2YDalNglJt7APXvRDvp_1-B9sj6K683ibg4alWzA/w398-h400/Schermafbeelding+2021-10-12+om+13.01.57.png" width="398" /></a></div>I wrote a popular science book. It is on comprehension and ranges from the understanding of words to the forming of conspiracy narratives. I wrote the book in Dutch. The title is <i><a href="https://www.boompsychologie.nl/product/100-10262_Drang-naar-samenhang#extra">Drang naar Samenhang: De Psychologie van het Begrijpen</a></i>. An English translation would be <i>Compulsion for Coherence: The Psychology of Comprehension</i>. </div><div><br /></div><div>Why did I switch to my native language, where it would have been easy—or maybe even easier-- for me to write the book in English? I had, after all, only written in English about comprehension before. There are several reasons for my linguistic U-turn. </div><div><br /></div><div>First, I wanted to write something that the people around me would enjoy: Dutch speakers who might be interested in the topics I am discussing but won’t necessarily read a book in English. It is gratifying to receive messages and comments from people outside the field who find the book both useful and fun to read. I can’t say I have ever received such comments from people outside the field about any of my articles.</div><div><br /></div><div>Second, although I very much enjoy writing in English, I thought it would be fun and a challenge to write in Dutch. And I was looking for something in the professional realm that was both challenging and enjoyable. I must admit that writing this book has been the most fun I’ve had professionally in a very long time. University bureaucracy has a way of grinding you down, as we all know. </div><div><br /></div><div>The third reason is that I thought writing in Dutch would put me in a different, and hopefully refreshing, mindset. I found this to be very much the case. Benjamin Whorf would not have been surprised, I suppose.</div><div><br /></div><div>The writing was already underway, when the pandemic hit. A major effect of the corona measures was that, along with everyone else’s, my focus narrowed (mostly) to my local surroundings. Writing in Dutch felt reassuringly appropriate in this situation.</div><div><br /></div><div>But now on to the main reason I’m writing this post. A disadvantage of having written the book in Dutch is that many of the researchers I thank in the acknowledgements will not be able to read them. Maybe there will be an English translation of the book at some point, but in the meantime, I want to at least translate the section of the acknowledgements that pertains to them. Sadly, some of the people I mention have already passed away.</div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6lmBy5c6TVsIMnfr-97z6rzgsXUgxXzdxv5tNY1W0-BJvAiC-PoPssUAl4nv7xM-cIw8MLGdUX8ZNodb_yVs3XTHfs66qiYiItzF1TF3KpmR4f6rP80x86UaFEw1Q4z_-N56aqlzWXTA/s2048/IMG_4624.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2048" data-original-width="1536" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6lmBy5c6TVsIMnfr-97z6rzgsXUgxXzdxv5tNY1W0-BJvAiC-PoPssUAl4nv7xM-cIw8MLGdUX8ZNodb_yVs3XTHfs66qiYiItzF1TF3KpmR4f6rP80x86UaFEw1Q4z_-N56aqlzWXTA/w300-h400/IMG_4624.JPG" width="300" /></a></div><div><i>Somewhere in this book I write that ideas don’t materialize out of thin air but instead rest upon the comprehension processes of many others. Much of what I know about comprehension, memory, and literature I have learned over the years from Art Graesser, Douwe Fokkema, Herre van Oostendorp, Walter Kintsch, Teun van Dijk, Gordon Bower, Tom Trabasso, Anders Ericsson, Don Foss, Nancy Stein, Art Glenberg, Murray Singer, Morton Ann Gernsbacher, and Paul van den Broek. Not only their work, but also the conversations I have had with them have proven to be founts of insights. In this book, I am taking these insights into new domains.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>I have also learned a lot from the people I have collaborated with on experimental research into comprehension processes. I am especially indebted to Joe Magliano, Gabe Radvansky, Katinka Dijkstra, Mike Kaschak, Barbara Kaup, Tobias Richter, and Anita Eerland.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>I have also gained useful insights from the graduate students (in the US and the Netherlands), who have worked with me on studies involving comprehension. I am thinking here especially of Carol Madden, Rich Yaxley, Mark Aveyard, Larry Taylor, Lisa Vandeberg, Lara Hoeben-Mannaert, Yiyun Liao, and Arnout Boot. </i></div><div><br /></div><div>Reading this translation makes me realize that had I written this in (American) English, I would have used more superlatives, but in Dutch this would sound weirdly over the top. Or maybe I'm just not a very good translator. At any rate, I trust everyone will know my thanks are sincere. </div><div><br /></div><div>I have a sabbatical coming up, so on to the next book…</div><div><br /></div><p></p>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-29425395004708840232020-07-20T16:58:00.004+02:002020-07-20T17:50:54.853+02:00How we did not fool ourselves : Reflections on adopting a flexible sequential testing method<p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "calibri light", sans-serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "calibri light", sans-serif;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><i><font face="verdana">Five years ago, I wrote a <a href="https://rolfzwaan.blogspot.com/2015/05/p20-what-now-adventures-of-good-ship.html" target="_blank">post about COAST</a>, a method of sequential testing proposed by Frick (1998). Time for a follow-up. In this guest post, my student Yiyun Liao, with the help of my colleague Steven Verheyen, writes about her experience using this method. She concludes with some tips about using COAST and about the importance of performing simulations and preregistering your research.</font></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><i><font face="verdana"><br /></font></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><i><font face="verdana"><br /></font></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><i><font face="verdana"><br /></font></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><font face="verdana"><span></span></font></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwKi_RdKhSfgIGaEyJtjK0iqLCUETaa0ElkXuFYIRrHTiDy7Wdsy3Gwe0eqe8srIgKYh2rculGsdbIozFAgpZsB8tN9GeptxfdHewbjMY8YrvbfG1oT83DvwvdCaxY-73jEWFO78yfn_A/s1142/yiyun-photo.jpeg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><font face="verdana"><img border="0" data-original-height="1078" data-original-width="1142" height="378" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwKi_RdKhSfgIGaEyJtjK0iqLCUETaa0ElkXuFYIRrHTiDy7Wdsy3Gwe0eqe8srIgKYh2rculGsdbIozFAgpZsB8tN9GeptxfdHewbjMY8YrvbfG1oT83DvwvdCaxY-73jEWFO78yfn_A/w400-h378/yiyun-photo.jpeg" width="400" /></font></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><font face="verdana"><br /></font></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="verdana"><br /></font></span></p><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="verdana"> Yiyun Liao</font></span></p></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies</font></span></p></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands</font></span></p></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> liao@essb.eur.nl</font></span></p></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote></blockquote><p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: right;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"><br /></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">Recently I, together with Drs. Katinka Dijkstra and Rolf Zwaan, conducted a study on two English prepositions:<i> to</i> and <i>towards</i>. Instead of following a conventional fixed-sample testing method, we adopted a flexible sequential testing method based on Frick’s COAST method (Frick, 1998). A very interesting case occurred after we finished our data analysis.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">The Study<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">The study was intended to replicate what we had found in a previous study on two Dutch prepositions: <i>naar</i> (‘to’) and <i>richting</i> (‘direction/towards’). We found that both the actor’s goal (Intentionality) and the social status of the interlocutor (Context) affect the use of <i>naar </i>and <i>richting </i>in an event-description task.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">Specifically, when there was a clear inference that the actor’s goal was going to the reference object in the described situation (e.g., a person carrying a trash bag and a trash bin being in the near distance), <i>naar </i>was used more often, compared to when there was no such inference (e.g., a person walking with nothing in hand and a trash bin being in the near distance). Moreover, <i>richting </i>was used more often when participants were told the interlocutor was a police officer, rather than a friend of the speaker.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">We aimed to replicate the above two patterns in English by doing the same study on the two English directional prepositions <i>to</i> and <i>towards</i>. We predicted the same main effects of Intentionality and Context on the use of the two English directional prepositions.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">Data collection<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">This study adopted Frick’s COAST method to conduct sequential analyses, as that was used in the Dutch study as well.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;"><i><span><font face="verdana">“In the sequential stopping rule I am proposing, the researcher can perform a statistical test at any time. If the outcome of this statistical test is p < .01, the researcher stops testing subjects and rejects the null hypothesis; if p > .36, the researcher stops testing subjects and does not reject the null hypothesis; and if .01<p<.36, more subjects are tested.”<o:p></o:p></font></span></i></p><p align="right" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: right;"><span><font face="verdana">Frick (1998, p. 691)<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p align="right" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: right;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">According to Monte Carlo simulations performed by Frick (1998), it is possible to preserve an overall alpha level in a sequential analysis provided one is committed to the above two termination criteria. There is no strict rule about the minimum number of participants a researcher should test based on this method. However, after having determined a minimum sample size, the research should be willing to stop testing more participants when a <i>p</i> value above .36 is found.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><font face="verdana"><span>As in the Dutch study, we determined to test 160 participants as our first data batch (the minimum number of participants we planned to test). </span><span lang="">If <i>p </i>>.36 or <i>p </i><.01 for each main effect we were testing (Intentionality and Context), we would stop testing. If <i>p</i> was within these boundaries for any one of the two main effects being predicted, we would collect another 160 participants. Considering the experimental costs (i.e., the money and time), we decided to stop at <i>N</i>=480 regardless of what the <i>p</i> values were (Lakens, 2014).<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">It is important to note that we had pre-registered this data collection plan, together with our materials, design, hypotheses, exclusion criteria, and analyses on the Open Science Framework (see details at: https://osf.io/7c5zh/?view_only=54cdbbb89cfb4f58a952edf8bd7331ab).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">Data analysis<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">This is where the interesting case was discovered!<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheGqUPH07JkYJzl5WE4nw0DHvPDyZhwfihWwwnuNUuf8WBkCF2CWSgd5kgOVFcjtGgVY5eJpq2RW3Iw4hbdnBPsr1hfNEO5aXyAR1O_ohCdD2WNChigVklQCJnFuPGAAkFRqrMOm1Csc8/s1340/Screenshot+2020-07-20+at+16.49.06.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><font face="verdana"><img border="0" data-original-height="680" data-original-width="1340" height="318" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheGqUPH07JkYJzl5WE4nw0DHvPDyZhwfihWwwnuNUuf8WBkCF2CWSgd5kgOVFcjtGgVY5eJpq2RW3Iw4hbdnBPsr1hfNEO5aXyAR1O_ohCdD2WNChigVklQCJnFuPGAAkFRqrMOm1Csc8/w625-h318/Screenshot+2020-07-20+at+16.49.06.png" width="625" /></font></a></div><p align="center" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="verdana"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><font face="verdana"><b><span> </span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Based on the stopping rule and our pre-registration, we collected data in three rounds and thus obtained three data batches.</span><b style="font-size: 12pt;"> </b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Figure 1 presents the obtained</span><i style="font-size: 12pt;"> p</i><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> values for each factor (Intentionality and Context) at each data batch.</span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><font face="verdana"><b><span>First data batch.</span></b><span> As in the Dutch study, we performed a logistic regression analysis on our first data batch. We found a highly significant effect of Intentionality (estimate = -0.995, <i>SE</i> = 0.34, <i>z</i> = -2.919, <i>p</i> = .004), whereas the <i>p</i> value found for Context was within the boundary of .01 to .36 (estimate = 0.676, <i>SE</i> = 0.34, <i>z</i> = 1.989, <i>p</i> = .047). Under regular circumstances, we would have claimed that we found evidence for both factors, given that the <i>p</i> values for both factors were found to be lower than .05! Arguably, this would have made our study easier to publish.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">However, based on our stopping rule (p<.01) and pre-registration, we could not do this. Therefore, we collected data from another 160 participants. Together with the previous 160 participants, this resulted in a second data batch that consisted of 320 participants.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><font face="verdana"><b><span>Second data batch.</span></b><span> We performed the same analysis on the second data batch. This time, the <i>p</i> values for both factors were within the set boundary (<i>Intentionality</i> estimate = -0.482, <i>SE</i> = 0.23, <i>z</i> = -2.071, <i>p</i> = .038; <i>Context </i>estimate = 0.534, <i>SE</i> = 0.23, <i>z</i> = 2.296, <i>p</i> = .022). We noticed that the effect of Intentionality started to wane (from <i>p</i> = .004 to <i>p</i> = .038).<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">Although the p values for both factors were below .05, we still could not stop and claim evidence for both factors at this point. A second chance of claiming significant effects slipped away. We then collected another 160 participants and reached the maximum number of 480 participants we intended to include.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><font face="verdana"><b><span>Third data batch.</span></b><span> The same analysis was conducted on the third data batch (480 participants). The effect of Context was found to be significant (p value was below 0.01: estimate = 0.673, <i>SE</i> = 0.19, <i>z</i> = 3.538, <i>p</i> < .001). This corresponds to what was predicted based on the Dutch study. However, the predicted effect of Intentionality totally disappeared (estimate = -0.323, <i>SE</i> = 0.19, <i>z</i> = -1.700, <i>p</i> =.089).<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">To conclude, we replicated the effect of Interlocutor in the English study. However, we could not replicate the effect of Intentionality. What appeared to be an easy sell on the first data batch (<i>p</i> = .004) turned out to be an unexpected disappointment. In order to find out why, we decided to dig deeper to explore what might be going on. Had the COAST method led us astray, robbing us of our predicted findings? We conducted a simulation study based on the collected data to find out.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">A simulation study<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">We permuted the participants within conditions, simulating what would have happened had we recruited the participants in a different order and applied the COAST method. We repeated this procedure 1000 times. This simulation study was to make sure that we did not miss any chance of finding an effect of Intentionality (i.e., that the COAST method did not “rob” us of an effect). Specifically, we wanted to know, among the 1000 simulations, the percentages of cases that mimicked our final results (i.e., a nonsignificant Intentionality effect and a significant Context effect), and the percentages of cases that we would make another decision (i.e., double effects, zero effects, significant Intentionality effect but nonsignificant Context effect).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="verdana">Table 1. the percentages of each possible result among the 1000 simulations<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; width: 671px;"><tbody><tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 291.75pt;" valign="top" width="389"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="times"> </font></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-image: initial; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: 1pt solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 65.55pt;" valign="top" width="87"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">percentages<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-image: initial; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: 1pt solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.7pt;" valign="top" width="194"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">Mimicking the final results?<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 291.75pt;" valign="top" width="389"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="times"><b><span>Double significance</span></b><span> (Intentionality < .01 & Context < .01)<o:p></o:p></span></font></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 65.55pt;" valign="top" width="87"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">1.8%<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.7pt;" valign="top" width="194"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">no<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 291.75pt;" valign="top" width="389"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="times"><b><span>Zero significance</span></b><span> (Intentionality > .36 & Context > .36)<o:p></o:p></span></font></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 65.55pt;" valign="top" width="87"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">2.9%<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.7pt;" valign="top" width="194"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">no<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 291.75pt;" valign="top" width="389"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="times"><b><span>One effect</span></b><span> (Intentionality < 0.01 & Context > 0.36)<o:p></o:p></span></font></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 65.55pt;" valign="top" width="87"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">0.1%<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.7pt;" valign="top" width="194"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">no<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 291.75pt;" valign="top" width="389"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="times"><b><span>One effect</span></b><span> (Intentionality > 0.36 & Context < 0.01)<o:p></o:p></span></font></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 65.55pt;" valign="top" width="87"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">21.5%<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.7pt;" valign="top" width="194"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">yes<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 291.75pt;" valign="top" width="389"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="times"><b><span>One effect</span></b><span> (.01 < Intentionality < .36 & Context < 0.01)<o:p></o:p></span></font></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 65.55pt;" valign="top" width="87"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span><font face="times">73.7%<o:p></o:p></font></span></p></td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.7pt;" valign="top" width="194"><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><font face="times">yes</font><font face="verdana"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></font></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"><br /></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">We found that among the 1000 simulations, 95.2% cases mimicked our final results, that is, nonsignificant Intentionality effect and significant Context effect (Intentionality > 0.36 & Context < 0.01 or .01 < Intentionality < .36 & Context < 0.01). In another 4.8% cases, we would make another decision. Table 1 shows the percentages of each possible result among the 1000 simulations. It should be noted that, among these 1000 simulations, with the former four results (26.3%) showed in table 1, data collection would stop at either data batch 1 or data batch 2, given that the <i>p</i> values for both factors were outside of the boundary we set (.01 < <i>p</i> < .36). 73.7% of the time we would continue data collection until we reached the final data batch (<i>N</i> = 480).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">Reflections<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">Had we conducted a traditional way of data collection and adopted the common standard of alpha < .05, we could have claimed that we had found significant main effects of both Intentionality and Context after our first data batch (<i>N</i> = 160), and we would have reached the conclusion that the effect of Intentionality is larger than that of Context.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">If we look at our simulations, however, 98.1% of the time, the effect of Intentionality was nonsignificant, while 97% of the time, the effect of Context was significant. What we found in our first data batch is actually very unusual.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">Had we not pre-registered our data collection method, it would have been tempting to stop at the first data batch. We could have easily fooled ourselves and others by claiming finding the same effects as in the Dutch study. We will conduct further experiments to find out why the effect of Intentionality did not appear in the English study.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">Tips<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><font face="verdana"><span>1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span>Our study indicates that Frick’s COAST method to conduct sequential analysis is a solid one. Researchers should consider using it, particularly when no educated estimate of the effect size can be produced in order to establish the sample size using a power analysis.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><font face="verdana"><span>2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span>Simulation is a very useful method if you do not understand your results or the results were not expected.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><font face="verdana"><span>3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span>Most importantly, pre-register your research design, data collection method, and data analysis and stick to it. By doing so, we can largely avoid questionable research practices, such as post-hoc analyses and p-hacking.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">Acknowledgement<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><span><font face="verdana">I would like to thank my colleague, dr. Steven Verheyen, for his help with the simulation study and the revision of the draft of this blogpost.<b><o:p></o:p></b></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana">References<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;"><b><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;"><span><font face="verdana">Frick, R. W. (1998). A better stopping rule for conventional statistical tests. <i>Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers</i>, 30(4), 690–697.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;"><span><font face="verdana"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;"><span><font face="verdana">Lakens, D. (2014). Performing high-powered studies efficiently with sequential analyses. <i>European Journal of Social Psychology</i>, 44(7), 701-710.</font><font face=""><o:p></o:p></font></span></p>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-17258223834239742782020-06-22T16:30:00.003+02:002020-06-22T18:40:24.926+02:00My Memories of Anders Ericsson<div><i>On June 17, Anders Ericsson, a giant in the field of psychology, passed away. Neil Charness, who knew Anders Ericsson much better than I did, has written a heartfelt and beautiful <a href="https://psy.fsu.edu/imagenews/imagenews.php?newsfile=imagenews6_19_20.php" target="_blank">in memoriam</a>. Here, I am merely describing some memories of the 13 years that Anders was my colleague.</i></div><div><br /></div><div>At the 1993 Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society in Washington DC, I was on my way to a poster session, when I was approached by a bearded and somewhat burly gentleman in a blue blazer. He was extremely polite, introducing himself by making slight bow, which I thought was both quaint and endearing. It was Anders Ericsson. I told him I knew his work on protocol analysis and, in fact, owned his 1984 book with Herbert Simon, which I’d bought as an undergraduate student. He told me there was an assistant professor position in his department and if I considered applying.</div><div><br /></div><div>Several months later I had accepted the position. And a few months after that my small family and I moved to Tallahassee in June, 1994. Anders had very generously offered to pay for my summer salary out of his endowment, allowing for a very smooth transition, making me feel at home in the department right away. One of my earliest memories from that period is when Anders’ wife, Natalie Sachs-Ericsson, very kindly took me on a shopping trip to buy carpet for my new office in the old Psychology Building. Another early memory is my daughter, Isabel, who was 2 at the time, being presented with a toy animal, a lamb, from Natalie and Anders when they came to visit. That lamb is still in my house. </div><div><br /></div><div>Anders’ office was in the Kellogg Research Building next to the Psychology building. The two buildings were connected by a bridge and I have fond memories of standing on that bridge discussing science with Anders, while he smoked a cigarette and we looked at the Spanish-moss covered live oak and the trucks arriving to deliver test animals for our neuroscience colleagues. Although Anders spoke near-perfect English, he maintained a slight Swedish lilt and his sentences were liberally sprinkled with the adverbs <i>essentially</i> and <i>basically</i>, which I suspected were strategic devices deployed to give him more time to think about what to say next.</div><div><br /></div><div>Years later, we would still be standing on that bridge. Anders had quit smoking at this point, but as soon as we approached the bridge, his hand would still go to his breast pocket, reaching for cigarettes that no longer were there. But his zest for discussion had not left him along with his smoking habit, so we still spent much time debating science topics. On one occasion, I remember being so engrossed in the conversation that I forgot I had to teach a class. I had no time to go back to my office because the students were already waiting and so had to go in empty-handed, much to Anders’ amusement. <i>This was fun! </i>Anders yelled after me, as I rushed off to my students.</div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAgYiUw0xKPEy_ML-zhi21GJbx3xtUqSumtyJfK6C-dbmR0VGiuSY2UVZb4cbe3__hztdxCsiEkONdShN7rHNVC2kiztV6ldcBqRapBjaLK_TMy_jxdKNABEjSK0Xcqb0v2WpviN4_rHQ/s1788/Screenshot+2020-06-22+at+15.30.49.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1032" data-original-width="1788" height="361" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAgYiUw0xKPEy_ML-zhi21GJbx3xtUqSumtyJfK6C-dbmR0VGiuSY2UVZb4cbe3__hztdxCsiEkONdShN7rHNVC2kiztV6ldcBqRapBjaLK_TMy_jxdKNABEjSK0Xcqb0v2WpviN4_rHQ/w625-h361/Screenshot+2020-06-22+at+15.30.49.png" width="625" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div>We would often leave the bridge to go into the Psychology Building to get coffee. At the door of the psychology building, a strange ritual would invariably unfold, in which Anders and I tried to out-polite one another. <i>After you</i>, one us us would say. <i>No after you</i>, the other would say, a back-and-forth that often lasted for half a minute or so. In the end, I think we were both polite enough to play it to a draw. I probably “won” about as many times by letting him go first as I “lost” by letting him let me go first. We both enjoyed this game, maybe because it reminded us of our common European roots. </div><div><br /></div><div>To state that Anders loved to discuss is to understate things. He typically went on the offence and questioned the theoretical justification for your hypothesis or your use of a particular method. Every cognitive psychology colloquium speaker would be subjected to an interrogation by Anders on why they were using their method of choice and not verbal protocols. <i>Wouldn’t you want to know what the people in your experiments are actually thinking? </i>I remember him asking on more than one occasion. It usually left the guest speaker struggling for an answer.</div><div><br /></div><div>Anders had an interesting style of mentoring a junior colleague. One year into my tenure track he said that it was all fine and good to have empirical papers, but if one wanted to get tenure, one needed a paper in <i>Psychological Review</i> or <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. I could see his point on some abstract level, but as it pertained to me, I thought it would be a big risk. Writing such a paper would take a lot of time, time that could be spent on more empirical papers, and what if neither of these journals would accept my manuscript? What would be my alternative outlets? I couldn't think of any. </div><div><br /></div><div>For a moment it felt as if, on my ladder toward tenure, someone just had taken out a few rungs above me. On the other hand, it was very motivating that someone like Anders would think I was up to the challenge. What particularly convinced me was Anders’ point that you should want to do work that is cited 50 years from now. I set to work and in 1998 my <i>Psych Bulletin</i> paper with Gabe Radvansky appeared. It still is (by far) my most-cited paper and continues to be well cited to this day. We’re not even at the halfway mark of the 50 years Anders had in mind but I will forever remain grateful for the challenge he put in front of me on that bridge.</div><div><br /></div><div>In our article, Radvansky and I were making use of the notion of long-term working memory, which Anders had developed with Walter Kintsch. I had hoped that this would form the basis for a collaboration with Anders but by then he was well into his expertise research and his focus seemed to have shifted away a little from long-term working memory. Without long-term working memory, finding a connection between research on language comprehension and expertise proved more difficult than I had imagined. </div><div><br /></div><div>At some point, Anders and I, still standing on that bridge, had come up with the topic of interpreting, a speaker translating someone else’s speech on the fly. The issue that interested us was how much comprehension would go on in such a task. We had devised an experiment, of the type we both liked: simple, clear, and clever (I think, retrospectively). It involved people translating French into English. The target phrase could only be translated in one of two ways, one of which would indicate comprehension (cross-sentential integration), whereas the other would indicate word-level translation. This would allow us to examine the effect of expertise. An expert interpreter would be able to integrate information across sentences, and thus comprehend, whereas a novice would have to resort to word-level translation. A graduate student in the French department ran the study. I’m not sure what happened to that study. My best recollection is that when the graduate student moved on, neither Anders nor I felt the study to be sufficiently close to our own interests to further pursue it. It turned out that it was a lot easier for us to stand on a bridge and discuss research than to build a bridge between our interests. </div><div><br /></div><div>Anders was a voracious reader, which is part of why it was so much fun to talk to him. He was a true intellectual and a deep thinker and you could talk meaningfully about an astonishing variety of topics with him. As behooves a true intellectual, he would be reading many different things simultaneously. So it was not uncommon to see a book open on his desk on Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s family history, an edited volume on sport psychology, a book on Elo-ratings in chess, a book on management, as well as various issues of Psych Review (his journal of choice), and photocopies of countless more articles. The picture of Anders’ office is not an exaggeration. I have seen worse. I remember once coming into his office and thinking he wasn’t there when he suddenly emerged from behind the stacks of books on his desk. He was probably writing another <i>Psych Review</i> article. I joked that if he went on like that we’d have to call a rescue team to excavate him from his office. His response was that, indeed, maybe he’d gotten carried away a little.</div><div><br /></div><div>As much as Anders enjoyed discussions, so little did he care for small talk. In fact, he tried to turn small talk into a more meaningful discussion at the first opportunity he saw. I remember one such case. By then I was head of the CBS (Cognitive, Behavioral, and Social Psychology) area and we were assembling before a meeting. Anders and I had already arrived. Momentarily forgetting who my conversation partner was, I mentioned, just to shoot the breeze, a newspaper article I’d read that morning about intelligent behavior by an octopus. Before I realized it, Anders saw an opening and said something to the effect of <i>In what way do you consider this behavior to be intelligent? Explain yourself, Sir!</i>. The response I had been looking for was more along the lines of <i>Golly, how ‘bout them octopuses! What will they be up to next?</i> I was relieved to see the other members of the area file in, so that we could start the meeting instead of me having to jump into the breach for the intellectual prowess of cephalopods.</div><div><br /></div><div>At the same time Anders' desire for conversations to be meaningful was what I, and many others, liked so much about him. It made every conversation with him more draining and formal than you might like at times, yes, but he always spoke with enthusiasm, humor, and a twinkle in his bright blue eyes, as Neil put it in his in memoriam (he forgot to mention the wiggling eyebrows), Just like his bow, Anders’ conversational style was both quaint and endearing. He told me that someone once had tried to call him “Andy.” We had a good laugh about this. Anders was definitely not an Andy! After all, an Andy would have said <i>How ‘bout them octopuses! </i></div><div><br /></div><div>Although Anders was Anders not an Andy, he didn't seem to want to move back to Sweden either. I once asked him directly about this. His response was that his focus on his work was so strong that he could live anywhere, as long as he was able do his work. I believed him. I was less single-minded about my work and did feel the pull of my home country. I moved back to the Netherlands in 2007 but I have very warm memories of my13 years in Tallahassee as Anders' colleague.</div><div><br /></div><div>I was very sad to learn about his passing last week. Only a few weeks ago, I had recommended his book with Herbert Simon on protocol analysis to one of my graduate students. It is now cited in a manuscript that we are about to submit. I like to think that Anders would have liked some of the experiments in it, as they are somewhat similar to the the experiment on interpreting he and I designed all these years ago.</div><div><br /></div><div>I conclude with some characteristics of Anders as I observed them that are worth emulating. I’m not calling them <i>things I learned from Anders</i>, as I cannot claim to have mastered any of them. </div><div><br /></div><div>•<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span><b>Read and think broadly and deeply.</b> In Anders’ way of thinking, relevant information about a topic can come from disparate sources but to see and articulate their relevance, you had to think deeply. Your work would be so much the better for it. He did not have much time for researchers who only use a single method and can see the world only through the lens of that method.</div><div><br /></div><div>•<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span><b>Only conduct an experiment when you have thought everything through and you are convinced that: (1) the question is worth asking and (2) the experiment is the best way to answer that question.</b> I heard that Anders used to tell his graduate students that they had to convince him of the experiment’s worth before they were allowed into the lab. In a publish-or-perish culture, this is bound to be frustrating, but imagine the state of the field if every advisor had taken Anders’ approach!</div><div><br /></div><div>•<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span><b>Go for the biggest effect! </b>This was something Anders ad learned from his time with Herb Simon, as he always pointed out. Again, imagine the state of the field if every advisor had followed Anders’ approach!</div><div><br /></div><div>•<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span><b>Be curious about what the participants in your experiments are actually thinking! </b>You can have them press buttons, measure their eye movements, or record their brain activation but in many cases it might be more informative to get at their thought processes more directly. I am becoming more and more convinced of the wisdom of this myself.</div><div><br /></div><div>•<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span><b>Do work that will be cited 50 years from now.</b> Don’t waste your time on smaller projects or administrative duties. And hide behind a wall of books if they come looking for you.</div><div><br /></div><div>•<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span><b>Always raise the bar, not just for others but also for yourself.</b> Anders was relentless on this score, no doubt inspired by his research on expertise. His usual approach was to ask: What would be the best way to accomplish this or that? He would then go on to ask Who are the best people you can think of in this area?. Next, he would ask What are they doing that you are not doing?, followed by How can you start doing what they are doing?. Most researchers lack Anders’ fortitude of mind and will to do this relentlessly, but it is a mindset worth aspiring to.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>References</div><div><br /></div><div>Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. <i>Psychological Review, 102</i>, </div><div><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>211-245.</div><div>Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H.A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. <i>Psychological Review, 87</i>, 215-</div><div><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>251. </div><div>Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H.A. (1984). <i>Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data</i>. Cambridge, </div><div><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>MA: MIT Press</div><div>Zwaan, R.A., & Radvansky, G.A. (1998). Situation models in language comprehension and </div><div><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>memory. <i>Psychological Bulletin, 123</i>, 162-185. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com09546 St. Oswald, Austria46.83653 13.7634823.348022315441359 -21.39277 70.325037684558652 48.91973tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-8243066292472185032018-05-18T16:57:00.000+02:002018-05-18T17:47:27.681+02:00A Career Niche for Replicators?<span style="font-size: 12pt;">My former colleague Roy Baumeister <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002210311600007X">famously said</a> that replication
is a "career niche for bad experimenters.”* I like to use this quote in my talk. Roy
is wrong, of course. As anyone who has tried to conduct a replication study
knows, it requires a great deal of skill to perform replications. This leads to
the question </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">Is there a career niche for
replicators?</i>
<br />
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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I was asked this question yesterday when I gave a talk on
<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/making-replication-mainstream/2E3D8805BF34927A76B963C7BBE36AC7#">Making Replication Mainstream</a> at the marvellous <a href="https://draft.blogger.com/"><span id="goog_286461232"></span>Donders Institute for Cognition, Brain, and Behaviour</a> in Nijmegen. I get asked this question regularly. My standard
answer is that it is not a good career choice. Implicit in this answer is the
idea that in order to become a tenured faculty member, one has to make a unique
contribution to the literature. Promotion-and-tenure writers are always asked
to comment on the uniqueness of a candidate’s work. Someone who only conducts
replication studies would run the risk of not meeting the current requirements to become and remain faculty members.<o:p></o:p></div>
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During lunch, a group of us got to talking some more about
this issue, to which I hadn't given sufficient thought, as it soon turned out.<br />
<br />
It was pointed out that there is a sizeable group of researchers who
would like to remain in science, have excellent methodological skills but don’t
necessarily have the ambition/creativity/chutzpah/temerity to pursue a career
as faculty member.<br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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These researchers, was the thinking at our lunch table, are
perfectly suited to conduct replication research. The field would benefit
greatly from their work. If we truly want to make replication mainstream, there
ought to be a career niche for them.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If faculty member is not a viable option, then what would be a good career niche for replicators? It was suggested at our table that replicators should become staff members,
much like lab managers. They would not be evaluated on the originality or uniqueness of their
publications. In fact, maybe they would not even be on the
publications, just as lab managers often are not on publications. Faculty
members select studies for replication and replicators conduct them and by doing so make a value contribution to our science.<o:p></o:p></div>
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I think this is a fair summary of our discussion. I have no
strong opinions on this career niche for replicators yet but I wonder what ya'lls thoughts on this are.<o:p></o:p></div>
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* The link is to a paywalled article but I'm sure you can scihub your way to it.Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-48943859010199837742018-02-02T12:40:00.001+01:002018-02-03T10:17:05.890+01:00How to Avoid More Train Wrecks<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b>Update February 3: I added a Twitter response made by the first author. In the commentary section a comment by the second author.</b><br />
<br />
I just submitted my review of the manuscript <i><a href="https://psyarxiv.com/r7pd3/">Experimental Design and the Reliability of Priming Effects: Reconsidering the "Train Wreck"</a></i> by Rivers and Sherman. Here it is.<br />
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<br /></div>
The authors start with two important observations. First, semantic priming experiments yield robust effects, whereas “social priming” (I’m following the authors’ convention of using quotation marks here) experiments do not. Second, semantic priming experiments use within-subjects designs, whereas “social priming” experiments use between-subjects designs. The authors are right in pointing out that this latter fact has not received sufficient attention.<br />
<br />
The authors’ goal is to demonstrate that the second fact is the cause of the first. Here is how they summarize their results in the abstract: “These results indicate that the key difference between priming effects identified as more and less reliable is the type of experimental design used to demonstrate the effect, rather than the content domain in which the effect has been demonstrated.”<br />
<br />
This is not what the results are telling us. What the authors have done, is to take existing well-designed experiments (not all of which are priming experiments by the way, as was already pointed out in the social media), and then demolish them to create, I’m sorry to say, more train wrecks of experiments in which only a single trial for each subject is retained. By thus getting rid of the vast majority of trials, the authors end up with an “experiment” that no one in their right mind would design. Unsurprisingly, they find that in each of the cases the effect is no longer significant.<br />
<br />
Does this show that “the key difference between priming effects identified as more and less reliable is the type of experimental design used to demonstrate the effect”? Of course not. The authors imply that having a within-subjects design is sufficient for finding robust priming effects, of whatever kind. But they have not even demonstrated that a within-subjects design is necessary for priming effects to occur. For example, based on the data in this manuscript, it cannot be ruled out that a sufficiently powered between-subjects semantic priming effect would, in fact, yield a significant result. We already know from replication studies that between-subjects “social priming” experiments do not yield significant effects, even with large power. <br />
<br />
More importantly, the crucial experiment that a within-subjects design is sufficient to yield “social priming” effects is absent from the paper. Without such an experiment, any claims about the design being the key difference between semantic and “social priming” are unsupported.<br />
<br />
So where does this leave us? The authors have made an important initial step in identifying differences between semantic and “social priming” studies. However, to draw causal conclusions of the type the authors want to draw in this paper, two experiments are needed.<br />
<br />
First, an appropriately powered single-trial between-subjects semantic priming experiment. To support the authors’ view, this experiment should yield a null result. This should of course be tested using the appropriate statistics. Rather than using response times the authors might consider using a word-stem completion task. Contrary to what the the authors would have to predict, I predict a significant effect here. If I’m correct, it would invalidate the authors’ claim about a causal relation between design and effect robustness.<br />
<br />
Second, the authors should conduct a within-subjects “social priming” effect (that is close to the ones that they describe in the introduction). Whether or not this is possible, I cannot determine.<br />
<br />
If the authors are willing to conduct these experiments--and omit the uninformative ones they report in the current manuscript—then they would make a truly major contribution to the literature. As it stands, they merely add more train wrecks to the literature. I therefore sincerely hope they are willing to undertake the necessary work.<br />
<br />
Smaller points<br />
<br />
p. 8. “In this approach, each participant is randomized to one level of the experimental design based on the first experimental trial to which they are exposed. The effect of priming is then analyzed using fully between-subjects tests.” But the order in which the stimuli were presented was randomized, right? So this means that this analysis actually compares different items. Given that there typically is variability in response times across items (see Herb Clark’s 1973 paper on the “language-as-fixed-effect fallacy”), this unnecessarily introduces noise into the analysis. Because there usually also is a serial position effect, this problem cannot be solved by taking the same item. One would have to take the same item in the same position. Therefore, it is impossible to take a single trial without losing experimental control over item and order effects. This is another reason why the “experiments” reported in this paper are uninformative.<br />
<br />
p. 9. The Stroop task is not really a priming task, as the authors point out in a footnote. Why not use a real priming task?<br />
<br />
p. 15. “It is not our intention to suggest that failures to replicate priming effects can be<br />
solely attributed to research design.” Maybe not, but by stating that design is “the key difference,” the authors are claiming it has a causal role.<br />
<br />
p. 16. “We anticipate that some critics will not be satisfied that we have examined ‘social<br />
priming’.” I’m with the critics on this one.<br />
<br />
p. 17. “We would note that there is nothing inherently “social” about either of these features of priming tasks. For example, it is not clear what is particularly “social” about walking down a hallway.” Agreed. Maybe call it behavioral priming then?<br />
<br />
p. 18. “Unfortunately, it is not possible to ask subjects to walk down the same hallway 300 times after exposure to different primes.” Sure, but with a little flair, it should be possible to come up with a dependent measure that would allow for a within-subjects design.<br />
<br />
p. 19. “We also hope that this research, for once and for all, eliminates content area as an explanation for the robustness of priming effects.” Without experiments such as the ones proposed in this review, this hope is futile.<br />
<br />
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<br />Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-68129188861660439882018-01-31T12:25:00.001+01:002018-01-31T12:25:09.307+01:00A Replication with a WrinkleA number of years ago, my colleagues Peter Verkoeijen, Katinka Dijkstra, several undergraduate students, and I conducted a replication of Experiment 5 of Kidd & Castano (2013). In that study, published in <i>Science,</i> participants were exposed to an excerpt from either literary fiction or from non-literary fiction.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzLGBMU_BPHwxmPmgNA_8lGTJl2z-TQSrxgtWqnNA6gPGRpR0w2HxYx-PYdPMTGMccMIZmF5xsE9y-9CHOGAEAL2aHRz3-HFOwSIqD160aa0YfgvXaH2c-wzJwloP3gK9HtXsuoJ285Ro/s1600/c6d788d7e623aad7aaf183d8b9717366--sharpei-dog-shar-pei-puppies.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="600" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzLGBMU_BPHwxmPmgNA_8lGTJl2z-TQSrxgtWqnNA6gPGRpR0w2HxYx-PYdPMTGMccMIZmF5xsE9y-9CHOGAEAL2aHRz3-HFOwSIqD160aa0YfgvXaH2c-wzJwloP3gK9HtXsuoJ285Ro/s320/c6d788d7e623aad7aaf183d8b9717366--sharpei-dog-shar-pei-puppies.jpg" width="320" /></a>Kidd and Castano hypothesized that brief exposure to literary fiction as opposed to non-literary fiction would enhance empathy in people because of the greater psychological finesse in literary novels than in non-literary novels. Anyone who has read, say, Proust as well as Michael Crichton will probably intuit what Kidd and Castano were getting at.<br />
<br />
Their results showed indeed that people who had been briefly exposed to the literary excerpt showed more empathy in Theory of Mind (ToM) tests than participants who had been briefly exposed to the non-literary excerpt.<br />
<br />
Because the study touches on some of our own interests, text comprehension, literature, empathy and because of a number of reasons detailed in the article, we decided to replicate one of Kidd & Castano’s experiments, namely their Experiment 5. Unlike Kidd and Castano, we found no significant effect of text condition on ToM. We wrote that study up for publication in the Dutch journal <i>De Psycholoog</i>, a journal targeted at a broad audience of practitioners and scientists.<br />
<br />
Because researchers from other countries kept asking us about the results of our replication attempt, we decided to make them more broadly available by writing an English version of the article with a more detailed methods and results section than was possible in the Dutch journal. This work was spearheaded by first author Iris van Kuijk, who was an undergraduate student when the study was conducted. A preprint of the article can be found <a href="https://psyarxiv.com/ht2ej">here</a>. An attentive reader who is familiar with the Dutch version and now reads the English version will be surprised. In the Dutch version the effect was not replicated but in the English version it was. What gives?<br />
<br />
And this brings us to the wrinkle mentioned in the title. The experiment relies on subjects having read the excerpt. However, as any psychologist knows, there are always people who don’t follow instructions. To pinpoint such subjects and later exclude their data, it is useful to know whether they’ve actually read the texts. In both experiments, reading times per excerpt were collected.<br />
<br />
We originally reasoned that it would be impossible for someone to read and understand a page in under 30 seconds. So we excluded subjects who had one or more reading times < 30 seconds per page. This ensured that our sample included subjects who had at least spent a reasonable amount of time on each excerpt. This would give the manipulation, reading a literary vs. non-literary excerpt optimum chance to work.<br />
<br />
Upon reanalyzing the data for the English version, my co-authors noticed that Kidd and Castano had used a different criterion for excluding outliers. They had used a criterion that was less stringent than ours. They had excluded subjects whose average reading times were < 30 seconds. This potentially includes subjects who may have had long reading times for one page but may have skimmed another.<br />
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Our original approach ensured that people had at least spent a sufficient amount of time on each page. This still does not guarantee that they actually comprehended the excerpts, of course. For this, it would have been better to include comprehension questions, such that subjects with low comprehension scores could have been excluded, as is common in text comprehension research.
<br />
<br />
Because we intended to conduct a direct replication, we decided to adopt the exclusion used by Kidd and Castano, even though we thought our own was better. And then something surprising happened: the effect appeared!<br />
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What to make of this? On the one hand, you could say that our direct replication reproduced the original effect (very closely indeed). On the other hand, we cannot come up with a theoretically sound reason why the effect would appear with a less-stringent exclusion criterion, which gives the manipulation less chance to impact ToM responses, and disappears with a more stringent criterion.<br />
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Nevertheless, if we want to be true to the doctrine of direct replication, which we do, then we should count this as a replication of the original effect but with a qualification. As we say in the paper:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
“Taken together, it seems that replicating the results of Kidd and Castano (2013) hinges on choosing a particular set of exclusion criteria that a priori seem not better than alternatives. In fact, […] one could argue that a more stringent criterion regarding reading times (i.e., smaller than 30s per page rather than smaller than 30s per page on average) is to be preferred because participants who spent less than 30 seconds on a page did not adhere to the task instruction of reading the entire text carefully.”</blockquote>
The article also includes a mini meta-analysis of four studies, including the original study and our replication. The meta-analytic effect is not significant but there is significant heterogeneity among the studies.<br />
<br />
In other words, there still are some wrinkles to be ironed out.<br />
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Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-22915506260949280922017-12-19T22:13:00.002+01:002017-12-20T08:21:40.511+01:00My CattleA while back, Lorne Campbell wrote a <a href="http://www.lornecampbell.org/?p=152">blog post</a> listing the preregistered publications from his lab. This is a great idea. It is easy to talk the talk, but it’s harder to walk the walk.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6-Ufj8Ts4Y5DdUaRbDlpLTOYssBPp3TVgA55KtqFFxp1yoS0lvXM75jFQBg1yoIEr7DwOnR1ANEVF6ab2POFEQkdx2M2bLVY5LOKG6V2Q0pj1fY4RQACzxg-NKcqAeCNJldyXt0v0Nu8/s1600/download+%25284%2529.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="194" data-original-width="259" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6-Ufj8Ts4Y5DdUaRbDlpLTOYssBPp3TVgA55KtqFFxp1yoS0lvXM75jFQBg1yoIEr7DwOnR1ANEVF6ab2POFEQkdx2M2bLVY5LOKG6V2Q0pj1fY4RQACzxg-NKcqAeCNJldyXt0v0Nu8/s1600/download+%25284%2529.jpeg" /></a>So under the notion that we don't want to be all hat and no cattle, I rounded up some replications and preregistered original papers that I co-authored.<br />
<br />
First the replications.<br />
<br />
I find performing replications very insightful. My role in two of the RRRs listed below (verbal overshadowing and facial feedback) was rather minor but the 2016 RRR and the issues surrounding it, on which I've <a href="https://rolfzwaan.blogspot.co.at/2017/02/replicating-effects-by-duplicating-data.html">blogged</a> before, felt like an onslaught. The 2012 replication study was used to iron out an inconsistency in the literature. An additional replication study is close to getting accepted and will be added to the list in an update.<br />
<br />
These days I use direct replications primarily when I want to build on work by others. As per Richard Feynman, before we move on we first need to attempt a direct replication of the effect we want to build on. We first need to know if we can reproduce it in our own lab.<br />
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<a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0051382">Zwaan, R.A., Pecher, D. (2012). Revisiting Mental Simulation in Language Comprehension: Six Replication Attempts. <i>PLoS ONE 7(12)</i>: e51382.</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1745691614545653">Alogna, V. K., Attaya, M. K., Aucoin, P., Bahnik, S., Birch, S., Birt, A. R., ... Zwaan, R. A. (2014). Registered replication report: Schooler & Engstler-Schooler (1990). <i>Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9,</i> 556–578.</a><br />
<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1745691615605826"><br /></a>
<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1745691615605826">Eerland, A., Sherrill, A.M., Magliano, J.P., Zwaan, R.A., Arnal, J.D., Aucoin, P., … Prenoveau, J.M. (2016). Registered replication report: Hart & Albarracín (2011). P<i>erspectives on Psychological Science, 11</i>, 158-171. </a><br />
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<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1745691616674458">Wagenmakers, E.-J., Beek, T., Dijkhoff, L., Gronau, Q. F., Acosta, A., Adams, R. B., Jr., . . . Zwaan, R. A. (2016). Registered Replication Report: Strack, Martin, & Stepper (1988). <i>Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11</i>, 917–928.</a><br />
<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-017-1348-y"><br /></a>
<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-017-1348-y">Zwaan, R. A., Pecher, D., Paolacci, G., Bouwmeester, S., Verkoeijen, P., Dijkstra, K., & Zeelenberg, R. (in press). Participant nonnaiveté and the reproducibility of cognitive psychology. <i>Psychonomic Bulletin & Review</i>.</a><br />
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Next the original preregistered studies.<br />
<br />
I started preregistering experiments several years ago. All in all, I find it an extremely important practice, quite possibly the most important thing we can do to improve the field. After a while preregistration becomes second nature and it becomes odd not to do it.<br />
<br />
I have no experience yet with reviewed preregistrations (other than the three RRRs that I’ve participated in). My co-authors and I submitted one over three months ago but we haven’t gotten the reviews yet. <br />
<br />
I should add, that I've co-authored quite a few additional empirical papers during this period that were not preregistered. This is mainly because the experiments in those papers were conducted years ago before preregistration was a thing.<br />
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<a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.113">Eerland, A., Sherrill, A.M., Magliano, J.P., Zwaan, R.A. (2017). The Blame Game: An investigation of Grammatical Aspect and Blame Judgments. <i>Collabra: Psychology, 3(1)</i>: 29, 1–12.</a><br />
Only Experiments 3-5 were preregistered. Experiments 1&2 were conducted in 2012.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0065480">Eerland, A., Engelen, J.A.A., Zwaan, R.A. (2013). The influence of direct and indirect speech on mental representations. <i>PloS ONE 8(6)</i>: e65480.</a><br />
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<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13421-017-0708-1">Hoeben-Mannaert, L., Dijkstra, K., & Zwaan, R.A. (2017). Is color an integral part of a rich mental simulation? <i>Memory & Cognition, 45</i>, 974–982.</a><br />
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Pouw, W.J.T.L., van Gog, T., Zwaan, R.A., Agostinho. S., & Paas, F. (in press). Co-thought gestures in children’s mental problem solving: Prevalence and effects on subsequent performance. <i>Applied Cognitive Psychology</i>.<br />
<a href="doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141181"><br /></a>
<a href="doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141181">Sherrill A.M., Eerland A., Zwaan R.A., & Magliano J.P. (2015). Understanding how grammatical aspect influences legal judgment. <i>PLoS ONE 10(10)</i>: e0141181.</a><br />
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<br />
And finally, to show that of course I also wear a stetson, here is a theoretical paper on replication. Yeehaw!<br />
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<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/making-replication-mainstream/2E3D8805BF34927A76B963C7BBE36AC7">Zwaan, R.A., Etz, A., Lucas, R.E., & Donnellan, M.B. (in press). Making replication mainstream. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>.</a><br />
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<br />Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-41021361450677885942017-12-07T22:38:00.003+01:002017-12-07T22:38:48.603+01:00The Long and Winding Road of our Latest Grammatical Aspect ArticleA short blog post that strings together 8 tweets that I sent out today about our new paper.<br />
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Today <a href="https://www.collabra.org/articles/10.1525/collabra.113/">our latest paper on grammatical aspect</a> appeared in <a href="https://www.collabra.org/">Collabra: Psychology</a>. The article reflects the times we psychologists are living in. It does so not from the lofty perspective of the methodologist or statistician, but from the work floor on which the actual scientist (**ducks**) operates.<br />
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Our first two experiments were inspired by Hart & Albarricin (2011). This research itself was inspired by some of our own work but took it from cognition into the realm of social psychology, as I described <a href="https://rolfzwaan.blogspot.co.at/2016/01/linguistic-cues-and-firing-guns-some.html">in this blog post</a>.<br />
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As the paper explains, these experiments were run in 2012, which is why they were not preregistered. Nobody was doing preregistration at the time. We were thinking to build on Hart and Albarricin (H&A) in what some would call a conceptual replication but which is better thought of as an extension.<br />
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For the life of us, we couldn’t get an effect like that of H&A. Then we got down to business and started a registered replication project in which we performed a direct replication of H&A.<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1745691615605826"> Along with 11 other labs, we found no effect</a>. <br />
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We were sidetracked by the replication project. Especially because there were some troubling issues with the initial response to our RRR, as I describe <a href="https://rolfzwaan.blogspot.co.at/2017/02/replicating-effects-by-duplicating-data.html">here</a> . We were sidetracked to the point that I’d completely forgotten about our 2012 experiments.<br />
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Luckily my co-authors had not and we decided to pick up the pieces of our study. It was clear that our research could no longer be driven by our H&A-inspired hypothesis, so we took a slightly different tack.<br />
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We conducted three more experiments, now all pre-registered, which yielded some interesting new findings, which you can read about in our paper. As usual per <i>Collabra</i>, the data are available and the reviews are open.<br />
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<br />Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-76497625150688092052017-08-07T21:06:00.000+02:002017-08-07T22:59:40.148+02:00Publishing an Unsuccessful Self-replication: Double-dipping or Correcting the Record?<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><a href="https://www.collabra.org/" i="">Collabra: Psychology</a> </i> has a submission option called <a href="https://www.collabra.org/about/editorialpolicies/#streamlined-review">streamlined review</a>. Authors can submit papers that were previously rejected by another
journal for reasons other than a lack of scientific, methodological, or ethical
rigor. Authors request permission from the original journal and then submit their revised manuscript with the original
action letters and reviews. Editors like me then make a decision about the revised
manuscript. This decision can be based on the ported reviews or we can solicit
further reviews.</div>
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One recent streamlined submission had previously been rejected
by an APA journal. It is a failed self-replication. In the original experiment,
the authors had found that a certain form of semantic priming, forward priming,
can be eliminated by working-memory load, which suggests that forward
semantic priming is not automatic. This is informative because it contradicts
theories of automatic semantic priming. When they tried to follow up on this
work for a new paper, however, the researchers were unable to obtain this elimination
effect in two experiments. Rather than relegating the study to the file drawer,
they decided to submit it to the journal that had also published their first
paper on the topic. Their submission was rejected. <a href="https://www.collabra.org/articles/10.1525/collabra.96/">It is now out</a>
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Collabra: Psychology</i>. The reviews
can be found <a href="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/ubiquity-partner-network/ucp/journal/collabra/collabra-3-96-pr.pdf">here</a>.<o:p></o:p>
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[Side note: I recently conducted a little poll on Twitter asking
whether or not journals should publish self-nonreplications. A staggering 97% of
the respondents said journals should indeed publish self-nonreplications. However,
if anything, this is evidence of the Twitter bubble I’m in. Reality is more recalcitrant.]<o:p></o:p></div>
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I thought the other journal’s reviews were thoughtful. Nevertheless,
I reached a different conclusion than the original editor. A big criticism in
the reviews was the concern about “double-dipping.” If an author publishes a
paper with a significant finding, it is unfair to let that same author then
publish a paper that reports a nonsignificant finding, as this gives the researcher
two bites at the apple.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg41rfsLbyvwi7kzc1ROXHy3IhCegj7yi9oxeSHZ3ckBoFetqlIJ31wF6xIPTdSFe2bP_yDDrFKtbZ9Tu48OW_ZgYuWfZc8ajTa46rF5EON6WtfgmmRu5D00qsULxIvvyLN9f5UDtJge1o/s1600/Schermafbeelding-2017-06-27-om-19.51.43.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="1390" height="221" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg41rfsLbyvwi7kzc1ROXHy3IhCegj7yi9oxeSHZ3ckBoFetqlIJ31wF6xIPTdSFe2bP_yDDrFKtbZ9Tu48OW_ZgYuWfZc8ajTa46rF5EON6WtfgmmRu5D00qsULxIvvyLN9f5UDtJge1o/s320/Schermafbeelding-2017-06-27-om-19.51.43.png" width="320" /></a>I understand the point. What drives this perception of
unfairness is our current incentive system. <o:p></o:p><br />
People are (still) rewarded for the
number of articles they publish, so letting someone first publish a finding and
then a nonreplication of this finding is unfair. It is as if in football (the
real football, where you use your feet to propel the ball) you get a point for
scoring a goal and then an additional point for missing a shot from the same
position.</div>
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However understandable, this idea loses its persuasive power
once we take the scientific record into account. As scientists, we want to
understand the world and lay a foundation for further research. It is therefore
important to have good estimates of effect sizes and the confidence we should
have in them. A nonreplication serves to correct the scientific record. It
tells us that the effect is less robust than we initially thought. This is
useful information for meta-analysts, who can now include both findings in
their collection. And even more importantly, it is very useful for researchers
who want to build on this research. They now know that the finding is less
reliable than they previously thought. It might prevent them from wandering into
a potential blind alley.<o:p></o:p></div>
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As with anything in science, allowing the publication of
self-nonrreplications opens the door to gaming the system. People could p-hack
their way to a significant finding, publish it and then fail to “replicate” the
finding in a second paper. As an added bonus, the self-nonreplication will also
give them the aura of earnest, self-critical, and ethical researchers.
Moreover, the self-nonreplication pretty much inoculates the finding from
“outside” replication efforts. Why try to replicate something that even the
authors themselves could not replicate?<o:p></o:p></div>
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That’s not two, not three, but four birds with one stone!
You might think that I’m making up the inoculation motive for dramatic effect.
I’m not. A researcher I know actually suspects another researcher of using the
inoculation strategy.<o:p></o:p></div>
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How worried should we be about the misuse of
self-nonreplications? I’m not sure. One potential safeguard is to have the
authors explain why they performed the replication. Did they think there was
something wrong with the original finding or were they just trying to build on
it and were surprised to discover they couldn’t reproduce the original finding?
And if a researcher makes a habit of publishing self-nonreplications, I’m sure
people would be on to them in no time and questions would be asked.<o:p></o:p></div>
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So I think we should publish self-nonreplications. (1) They
help to make the scientific record more accurate. (2) They are likely to
prevent other researchers from ending up in a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x4InrhGaOjE">cul-de-sac</a>. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The concern about double-dipping is only a concern given our
current incentive system, which is one more indication that this system is detrimental
to good science. But that’s a topic for a different post.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-3350279034505065072017-07-26T22:48:00.004+02:002017-07-27T10:09:50.954+02:00 Defending .05: It’s Not Enough to be Suggestive<div style="text-align: left;">
<b>Today another guest post. In this post, Fernanda Ferreira and John Henderson respond to the recent and instantly (in)famous multi-authored proposal to lower the level of statistical significance to .005. If you want to discuss this post, Twitter is the medium for you. The authors' handles are @fernandaedi and @JhendersonIMB.</b></div>
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Fernanda Ferreira</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
John M. Henderson</div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
Department of Psychology and Center for Mind and Brain</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
University of California, Davis</div>
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<br />
The paper <a href="https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/mky9j/">“Redefine Statistical Significance”</a> (henceforth, the “.005 paper”), written by a consortium of 72 authors, has already made quite a splash even though it has yet to appear in Nature Human Behavior. The call to a redefinition of statistical significance from .05 to .005 would have profound consequences across psychology, and it is not clear to us that the broad implications across the field have been thoroughly considered. As cognitive psychologists, we have major concerns about the advice and the rationale for this severe prescription.<br />
<br />
In cognitive psychology we test theories motivated by a body of established findings, and the hypotheses we test are derived from those theories. It is therefore rarely true that any experimental outcome will be treated as equally likely. Our field is not effects-driven—we’re in the business of building and testing functional theories of the mind and brain, and effects are always connected back to those theories.<br />
<br />
Standard practice in our subfield of psychology has always been based on replication. This has been extensively discussed in the literature and in social media, but it seems helpful to repeat the point: All of us were trained to design and conduct a theoretically motivated experiment, then design and conduct follow-ups that replicate and extend the theoretically important findings, often using converging operations to show that the patterns are robust across measures. This is why the stereotype emerged that cognitive psychology papers were typically three experiments and a model, where “model” is the subpart of the theory tested and elaborated in this piece of research.<br />
<br />
Standard practice is also to motivate new research projects from theory and existing literature; the idea for a study doesn’t come out of the blue. And the first step when starting a new project is to make sure the finding or phenomenon to be built upon replicates. Then the investigator goes on to tweak it, play with it, push it, etc., all in response to refined hypotheses and predictions that fall out of the theory under investigation.*<br />
<br />
Now, at this point, even if you agree with us, you might be thinking, “Well what would be the harm in going to a more conservative statistical criterion? Requiring .005 would only have benefits, because then we guard against Type I error and we avoid cluttering up the literature with non-results.” Unfortunately, as many have pointed out in informal discussions concerning the .005 paper, and as the .005 paper acknowledges as well, there are tradeoffs.<br />
<br />
First, if you do research on captive undergraduates or you use M-Turk samples, then Ns in the hundreds might be no big deal. In the article, the authors estimate that a shift to .005 will necessitate at least a 70% increase in sample sizes, and they suggest this is not too high a price to pay. But setting aside the issue of non-convenience samples, this estimate is for simple effects, and we’re rarely looking for simple effects. In our business it’s all about statistical interactions, and for those, this recommendation can lead to much larger increases in sample size. And if your field requires you to test non-convenience samples such as heritage language learners, or people with any type of neuropsychological condition such as aphasia, or people with autism, dyslexia, or ADHD, or even just typically developing children, then these Ns might be unattainable. Testing such participants also requires trained, expensive staff. And yet the research might be theoretically and practically important. So if you work with these non-convenience samples, subject testing is costly. It probably requires real money to pay those subjects and the research assistants doing the testing, and the money is almost always going to come from research grants. And we all know what the situation is with respect to research funding—there’s very little of it. But even if you had the money, and you didn’t care that it came at the expense of the funding of maybe some other scientist’s project, where would you find the large numbers of people that this shift in alpha level would require? What this means in practice is that some potentially important research will not get done.<br />
<br />
Let’s turn now to Type II error. The authors of the .005 piece, to their credit, discuss the tradeoff between settling for Type I versus Type II error, and they come down on the side that Type I is costlier. But this can’t be true as a blanket statement. Missing a potential effect because you’ve set the false positive rate so conservatively could have major implications for theory development as well as for practical interventions. A false positive is a thing that a researcher might follow up and discover to be illusory; but a false negative is not a thing and therefore is likely to be ignored and never followed up, which means that a potentially important discovery will be missed.<br />
<br />
Some have noted that the negative reaction to the .005 article has been surprisingly strong. A response we’ve heard to the kinds of concerns we’ve expressed is that the advocates of the .005 paper are not urging .005 as a publication standard, but merely as the alpha level that permits the use of the word “significant” to describe results. However, it is easy to foresee a world in which (if these recommendations are adopted) editors and reviewers start demanding .005 for significance and use it as a publication standard. After all, the goal of the piece presumably isn’t just to fiddle with terminology.<br />
<br />
We think the strong reaction against .005 is also in part because the nature of common practice in different areas of psychology are not well represented by those advocating for major changes to research practice like the .005 proposal. Relatedly, we think it’s unfortunate that, today, in the popular media, one frequently sees references to “the crisis in psychology”, when those of us inside psychology know that the entire field is not in crisis. The response from these advocates might be to say that we’re in denial, but we’re not – as we outlined earlier, the approach to theory building, testing, replication, and cumulative evidence that’s standard in cognitive psychology (and other subareas of psychology) makes it unlikely that a cute but illusory effect will survive.<br />
<br />
So our frustration is real. We would like to see the conversation in psychology about scientific integrity broadened to include other subfields such as ours, and many others.<br />
<br />
-----<br />
*When we say these are standard practices in cognitive psychology, we don’t intend to imply that these practices are not standard in other areas; we’re simply talking about cognitive psychology because it’s the area with which we’re most familiar.<br />
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Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-46806575431688860782017-05-16T19:20:00.004+02:002017-05-16T19:20:46.067+02:00Sometimes You Can Step into the Same River Twice<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 36pt;"> A recurring theme in the replication debate is the
argument that certain findings don’t replicate or cannot be expected to
replicate because the context in which the replication is carried out differs
from the one in which the original study was performed. This argument is usually
made after a failed replication.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In most such cases, the original study did not provide a set of
conditions under which the effect was predicted to hold, although the original paper often <i>did</i> make grandiose claims about the effect’s
relevance to variety of contexts including industry, politics, education, and beyond. If you fail to replicate this effect, it's a bit like you've just bought a car that was touted by the salesman as an "all-terrain vehicle," only to have the wheels come off as soon as you drive it off the lot.*<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As this automotive analogy suggests,
the field has two problems: many effects (1) do not replicate and
(2) are grandiosely oversold. Dan Simons, </span>Yuichi Shoda, and Steve Lindsay have recently <a href="https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/w9e3r">made a proposal</a> that provides a practical solution to the overselling problem: researchers need to include in their paper a statement that explicitly identifies and justifies the target populations for the reported findings, a constraints on generality (COG) statement. Researchers also need to state whether they think the results are specific to the stimuli that were used and to the time and location of the experiment. Requiring authors to be specific about the constraints on generality is a good idea. You probably wouldn't have bought the car if the salesman had told you its performance did not extend beyond the lot. </div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> A converging idea is to systematically examine which contextual changes might impact which (types of) findings. Here is one example. </span></span>We always assume that subjects are completely naïve with regard to an experiment, but how can we be sure? On the surface, this is primarily a problem that vexes on-line research using databases such as Mechanical Turk, which has forums on which subjects discuss experiments. But even with the good old lab experiment we cannot always sure that our subjects are naïve to the experiment, especially when we try to replicate a famous experiment. If subjects are not blank slates with regard to an experiment, a variation of population has occurred relative to the original experiment. We've gone from sampling from a population of completely naïve subjects to sampling from one with an unknown percentage of repeat-subjects.</div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> Jesse </span>Chandler and colleagues <a href="chrome-extension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jesse_Chandler/publication/278026178_Using_Nonnaive_Participants_Can_Reduce_Effect_Sizes/links/55801c4808aeac4d1095bc37.pdf">recently examined</a> whether prior participation in experiments affect effect sizes. They tested subjects in a number of behavioral economics tasks (such as <i>sunk cost</i> and <i>anchoring and adjustment</i>) and then
retested these same individuals a few days later. Chandler et al. found an estimated 25% reduction in
effect size, suggesting that the subjects’ prior experience with the experiment
did indeed affect their performance in the second wave. A typical characteristic of these experiments is that they require reasoning, which is a controlled process. How about tasks that tap more into automatic processing?</span><br />
<br />
To examine this question, my <a href="https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/rbz29">colleagues and I examined</a> nine well-known effects
in cognitive psychology, three from the domain of perception/action, three from
memory, and three from language. We tested our subjects in two waves, the second
wave three days later than the first one. In addition, we used either the exact
same stimulus set or a different set (with the same characteristics, of
course).</div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As we expected, all effects replicated
easily in an online environment. More importantly, in contrast to Chandler and colleagues' findings,
repeated participation did not lead to a reduction in effect size in our experiments. Also, it did not
make a difference if the exact same stimuli were used or a different set.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQE01PpIjJf8p0jp6_8oLR_KvS5Vav0R44kdeD9xWqSFRl0mY7EE2f9_D4t2cIqRL4ClJ0ej0TAXjiICjF1ExOdC3PLkeNZBB6xqzdaUPqTx9_jrZT51b7iyuU0MvP0kfxlDAMhSCkWJk/s1600/Screen+Shot+2017-05-16+at+18.01.23.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQE01PpIjJf8p0jp6_8oLR_KvS5Vav0R44kdeD9xWqSFRl0mY7EE2f9_D4t2cIqRL4ClJ0ej0TAXjiICjF1ExOdC3PLkeNZBB6xqzdaUPqTx9_jrZT51b7iyuU0MvP0kfxlDAMhSCkWJk/s640/Screen+Shot+2017-05-16+at+18.01.23.png" width="601" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Maybe you think that this is not a
surprising set of findings. All I can say that before running the experiments,
our preregistered prediction was that we would obtain a small reduction of effect sizes
(smaller than the 25% of Chandler et al.). So we at least were a little surprised
to find no reduction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A couple of questions are worth
considering. First, do the results indicate that the initial participation
left no impression whatsoever on the subjects? No, we cannot say this. In some
of the response-time experiments, for example, we obtained faster responses in wave 2 than in wave 1. However, because the responses also became less varied in their
performance, the effect size did not change appreciably. A simple way to put it
would be to say that the subjects became better at performing the task (as they
perceived it) but remained equally sensitive to the manipulation. In other
cases, such as the simple perception/action tasks, responses did not speed up,
presumably because subjects were already performing at asymptote level.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Second, how non-naïve were our subjects in wave 1? We have no guarantee that the subjects in wave 1 were
completely naïve with regard to our experiments. What our data do show, though,
is that the 9 effects replicate in an online environment (wave 1) and that
repeating the experiment a mere few days later (wave 2) by the same research group
does not reduce the effect size.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> So, in this sense, you can step into the same river twice. </span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"><br /></span></span>
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"><br /></span></span>
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">---</span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">* Automotive metaphors are popular in the replication debate, see also <a href="http://www.collabra.org/articles/10.1525/collabra.74/">this opinion piece</a> in <i>Collabra: Psychology</i> by Simine Vazire.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-81316407921997549672017-05-08T18:21:00.000+02:002017-05-08T18:39:41.193+02:00Concurrent Replication<h1 style="line-height: 200%;">
</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">I’m working on a paper
with Alex Etz, Rich Lucas, and Brent Donnellan. We had to cut 2,000 words and the text below is one of the darlings we killed. I’m reviving it as a blog
post here because even though it made sense to cut the segment from the manuscript (I
cut it myself, the others didn’t make me), the notion of concurrent replication
is an important one.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The current replication debate has, for various reasons, construed
replication as a retrospective process. A research group decides to replicate a
finding that is already in the published literature. Some of the most
high-profile replication studies, for example, have focused on findings
published decades earlier, for example the registered replication projects on
verbal overshadowing (Alogna et al, 2014) and facial feedback (Wagenmakers et
al., in press). This retrospective approach, however timely and important,
might be partially responsible for the controversial reputation that
replication currently enjoys. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">A form of replication that has received not much attention yet is
what I will call <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">concurrent replication</i>.
The basic idea is this. A research group formulates a hypothesis that they want
to test. At the same time, they desire to have some reassurance about the
reliability of the finding they expect to obtain. They decide to team up with
another research group. They provide this group with a protocol for the
experiment, the program and stimuli to run the experiment, and the code for the
statistical analysis of the data. The experiment is preregistered. Both groups
then each run the experiment and analyze the data independently. The results of
both studies are included in the article, along with a meta-analysis of the
results. This is the simplest variant. A concurrent replication effort can
involve more groups of researchers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A direct exchange of experiments (a straight “study swap”) is the
simplest model of concurrent replication. It is possible to accomplish such
study swaps on a larger scale where participating labs offer and request
subject hours. This will likely result in a network of labs each potentially
simultaneously engaged in forming and testing novel hypotheses as well as
concurrently replicating hypotheses formed by other labs. The Open Science
Framework features a site that has recently been developed to facilitate
concurrent replication, <a href="https://osf.io/view/studyswap/">Study Swap</a>, see also <a href="http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/49161/title/Online-Platform-Aims-to-Facilitate-Replication-Studies/">this article</a>. At the time of
this writing, there are four projects listed on Study Swap. We hope this number
will increase soon. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Aside from this, there already are several large-scale concurrent
replication efforts. An example is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pipeline
Project</i>, a systematic effort to conduct prepublication replications,
independently performed by separate labs. The first instalment was recently
published (Schweisberg et al. 2016) and a second project is underway. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Concurrent replication has several advantages. First, researchers
have a better sense of the reliability of their findings prior to
publication.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After all, the results have
been independently replicated before submission of the article. Likewise,
journal editors and reviewers will have more confidence in the findings
reported in the manuscript they are asked to evaluate. Journals have the luxury
of publishing findings that have already been independently replicated. As a
result, the reproducibility of the findings in the literature will start to
increase. The Schweisberg et al. (2016) study demonstrates that concurrent
replication is not only possible but also useful. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Concurrent replication forces researchers to be explicit about the
procedure by which they expect to obtain the effect. If they do indeed obtain
the finding both in the original study and in an independent replication, they
have what amounts to a scientific finding according to the criteria established
by Popper: They can describe a procedure by which the finding can reliably be
produced. It will be easy and natural to include the protocol into the method
section of the article. A positive side-effect of this will be a marked
improvement in the quality of method sections in the literature. As a result,
researchers who want to build on these findings have two advantages that
researchers currently do not enjoy. First, they can build on a firmer
foundation. After all, the reported finding has already been independently
replicated. Second, a replication recipe doesn’t have to be laboriously
reconstructed. It is readily available in the article.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Of course, concurrent replication is not without challenges. For
instance, how should authorship be determined given such an arrangement? A
flexible approach is best here. At one extreme the original group’s hypothesis
might be very close to the replicating group’s own interest. In this case it
would therefore be logical to make members of both groups co-authors; each
group may have something to add to the paper both in terms of data and analysis
and in terms of theory. At the other extreme, the second group has no direct
interest in the hypothesis but may be willing to run a replication, perhaps in
exchange for a replication of one of their own experiments. In this case it
might be sufficient to acknowledge the other group’s involvement without
offering co-authorship. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Thus far, the discussion here has only involved a scenario in which
the hypothesis is supported in both the initiating as in the replicating lab.
However, other scenarios are also possible. The second scenario is one in which
the hypothesis is supported in one of the labs but not in the other. If the
meta-analysis shows heterogeneity among the findings, researchers might
hypothesize about a potential difference between the experiments, preregister
that hypothesis and test it, again with a direct replication. If the
meta-analysis does not show heterogeneity, it might be decided that it is
sufficient to report the meta-analytic effect. If neither lab shows the effect,
the research groups might report the results without engaging in follow-up
studies. Alternatively, they might decide the experimental procedure was
suboptimal, revise it, preregister the new experiment and run it, along with one
or more concurrent replications.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">To summarize, concurrent replication forms an underrepresented but
potentially extremely valuable form of replication. Several concurrent
large-scale replication efforts are currently underway and a platform that also
facilitates conducting smaller-scale projects is available for use. The fact
that concurrent replications are often viewed positively by the field is
further evidence of the importance of replication for scientific endeavors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">References<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Alogna, V. K., Attaya, M. K., Aucoin, P., Bahnik, S.,
Birch, S., Birt, A. R., ... Zwaan, R. A. (2014). Registered replication report:
Schooler & Engstler-Schooler (1990). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Perspectives
on Psychological Science, 9</i>, 556–578.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.0cm; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Schweinsberg, M. et al. (2016). The pipeline project:
pre-publication independent replications of a single laboratory's research
pipeline. journal of experimental social psychology, 66, 55–67.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.0cm; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Wagenmakers, E.-J., Beek, T., Dijkhoff, L., Gronau, Q.
F., Acosta, A., Adams, R. B., Jr., . . . Zwaan, R. A. (2016). Registered
Replication Report: Strack, Martin, & Stepper (1988). <i>Perspectives
on Psychological Science, 11</i>, 917–928.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6322739827777311964.post-3892151773182254982017-03-04T18:54:00.000+01:002017-03-06T15:04:25.916+01:00The value of experience in criticizing research<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
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<b>It's becoming a trend: another guest blog post. This time, J.P. de Ruiter shares his view, which I happen to share, on the value of experience in criticizing research.</b></div>
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J.P. de Ruiter</div>
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Tufts University</div>
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One of the reasons that the scientific method was such a brilliant idea is that it has criticism built into the process. We don’t believe something on the basis of authority, but we need to be convinced by relevant data and sound arguments, and if we think that either the data or the argument is flawed, we say this. Before a study is conducted, this criticism is usually provided by colleagues, or in case of preregistration, reviewers. After a study is submitted, critical evaluations are performed by reviewers and editors. But even after publication, the criticism continues, in the form of discussions in follow-up articles, at conferences, and/or on social media. This self-corrective aspect of science is essential, hence criticism, even though at times it can be difficult to swallow (we are all human) is a very good thing. </div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgS5o0C0cs_QiluLXseRmcvqehrsmOBiPSVwlvck_IyL1_8y3h8xBPx_o2_9fwo10ve77iMJzrCm302w2M6CB_bKfjliAQ5c-8sM9_wYrHJe6sHrCOP4QG6ZT6Q9CgZtBzVGOgTEA7Ga6g/s1600/nitpick.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgS5o0C0cs_QiluLXseRmcvqehrsmOBiPSVwlvck_IyL1_8y3h8xBPx_o2_9fwo10ve77iMJzrCm302w2M6CB_bKfjliAQ5c-8sM9_wYrHJe6sHrCOP4QG6ZT6Q9CgZtBzVGOgTEA7Ga6g/s320/nitpick.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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We often think of criticism as pointing out flaws in the data collection, statistical analyses, and argumentation of a study. In methods education, we train our students to become aware of the pitfalls of research. We teach them about assumptions, significance, power, interpretation of data, experimenter expectancy effects, Bonferroni corrections, optional stopping, etc. etc. This type of training leads young researchers to become very adept at finding flaws in studies, and that is a valuable skill to have. </div>
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While I appreciate that noticing and formulating the flaws and weaknesses in other people’s studies is a necessary skill for becoming a good critic (or reviewer), it is in my view not sufficient. It is very easy to find flaws in any study, no matter how well it is done. We can always point out alternative explanations for the findings, note that the data sample was not representative, or state that the study needs more power. Always. So pointing out why a study is not perfect is not enough: good criticism takes into account that research always involves a trade-off between validity and practicality. </div>
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As a hypothetical example: if we review a study about a relatively rare type of Aphasia, and notice that the authors have studied 7 patients, we could point out that a) in order to generalize their findings, they need inferential statistics, and b) in order to do that, given the estimated effect size at hand, they’d need at least 80 patients. We could, but we probably wouldn’t, because we would realize that it was probably hard enough to find 7 patients with this affliction to begin with, so finding 80 is probably impossible. So then we’d probably focus on other aspects of the study. We of course do keep in mind that we can’t generalize over the results in the study with the same level of confidence as in a lexical decision experiment with a within-subject design and 120 participants. But we are not going to say, “This study sucks because it had low power”. At least, I want to defend the opinion here that we shouldn’t say that. </div>
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While this is a rather extreme example, I believe that this principle should be applied at all levels and aspects of criticism. I remember that as a grad student, a local statistics hero informed me that my statistical design was flawed, and proceeded to require an ANOVA that was way beyond the computational capabilities of even the most powerful supercomputers available at the time. We know that full LMM models with random slopes and intercepts often do not converge. We know that many Bayesian analyses are intractable. In experimental designs, one runs into practical constraints as well. Many independent variables simply can’t be studied in a within-subject design. Phenomena that only occur spontaneously (e.g. iconic gestures) cannot be fully controlled. In EEG studies, it is not feasible to control for artifacts due to muscle activity, hence studying speech production is not really possible with this paradigm.</div>
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My point is: good research is always a compromise between experimental rigor, practical feasibility, and ethical considerations. To be able to appreciate this as a critic, it really helps to have been actively involved in research projects. Not only because that gives us more appreciation of the trade-offs involved, but also, perhaps more importantly, of the experience of really wanting to discover, prove, or demonstrate something. It makes us experience first-hand how tempting it can be, in Feynman’s famous formulation, to fool ourselves. I do not mean to say that we should become less critical, but rather that we become better constructive critics if we are able to empathize with the researcher’s goals and constraints. Nor do I want to say that criticism by those who have not yet have had positive research experience is to be taken less seriously. All I want to say here is that (and why) having been actively involved in the process of contributing new knowledge to science makes us better critics. </div>
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Rolf Zwaanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07617143491249303266noreply@blogger.com2